18th century sailboat

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Both vessels pictured at the top of the page are cutters in the US Coast Guard, while both of the US Navy ships pictured at the bottom are frigates. How can a modern, high-tech vessel have the same designation as an old square-rigged sailing ship?

The nautical term “cutter” is defined as a sailing vessel with one mast and two headsails. In the 18th century, the term was used for any vessel in Great Britain’s Royal Customs Service, and when the US Revenue Cutter Service (forerunner of today’s Coast Guard) was established in 1790, they adopted the same term for their vessels. The Revenue Cutter Service enforced customs regulations and other maritime laws. Their vessels had to be fast to be able to chase smugglers and have shallow draft, so they could get into the smaller bays and inlets along the coast. The designation “cutter” has been carried across generations of vessel types.

Today, all vessels in the Coast Guard fleet 65 feet and longer are called cutters. In the photo, above left, is the USCG Cutter Eagle, which is a three-masted barque used as a training ship. To the right is the 270-foot USCG Cutter Seneca, which is used for Search and Rescue and for Maritime Law Enforcement. Cutters in today’s US Coast Guard range from 65-foot tugs and buoy tenders to national security cutters and icebreakers that are more than 400 feet long.

As part of the Naval Act of 1794, the US Congress authorized the building of six ships to establish a permanent navy. These first US Navy ships were heavy frigates, which were not as big as ships-of-line but were strongly built and heavily armed. Designed to be fast and maneuverable, frigates could perform a variety of functions for the new navy, giving them the most “bang for their buck.” Unlike the Coast Guard cutter, which is any type of larger vessel in the Coast Guard, a frigate is a specific class of ship that has evolved over time, with changes in vessel design and technology.

Like the first frigates of the US Navy, such as USS Constitution (below, right), today’s navy frigates have multi-mission capability and are fast ships that are built to withstand heavy damage. In the photo (below left) is USS Vandegrift, a 453-foot guided-missile frigate based out of San Diego, California. The 204-foot USS Constitution is the navy’s oldest commissioned warship and is based in Boston, Massachusetts. She is a three-masted full-rigged, wooden ship and serves as a museum ship. Look for her underway in Boston Harbor this summer during the War of 1812 OpSail parade of tall ships.

Did You Know?

Today, nearly 42,000 men and women serve on active duty in the US Coast Guard.

The United States Coast Guard is the nation’s oldest maritime service and is really a combination of five different agencies that were brought together to make them run more efficiently—the Revenue Cutter Service, the Lighthouse Service, the Life-Saving Service, the Bureau of Navigation, and the Steamboat Inspection Service.

What do members of the Coast Guard do every day?

Learn more at United States Coast Guard

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W estern A ustralian M useum › Maritime Archaeology Databases › Wrecks › Early Sailing Ships

In the last quarter of the 18th century, large European vessels were being classified into types based on their hull configuration, e.g. frigate, hagboat, pink, cat, flute, and bark. The VOC also used the terms retourschip (for large vessels like the Batavia) and jacht (for smaller ships like the Vergulde Draeck). Though there were differences, contemporary vessels like the EEIC ship Trial are expected to have been similar in appearance to their Dutch counterparts. By the end of the 18th century, vessels were also being classified according to their rig, rather than their hull form, and this method has continued to the present day. Some of the more common types (brig, barque, schooner) appear in this list and are presented here in silhouette form for ease of understanding. The largest sailing vessels on this coast were found with four masts, and early steamers also carried sails. An example is the two-masted schooner-rigged SS Georgette. In cases where a vessel had a long career, its rig could have been changed during its working life. Carlisle Castle for example was first a ship and then a barque and SS Omeo had its engine removed to become a four-masted sailing barque.

This generally refers to large sea-going vessels under sail or power. With sailing vessels it specifically refers to a vessel with three or more masts with square sails capable of being set on all masts. The early whalers are a good example of a ship.

A vessel of three or more masts, fore and aft rigged on the aftermost mast and square-rigged on all others. Sometimes spelled ‘bark’.

A two masted vessel, fully square rigged on both masts.

A capacious one-masted vessel often with a pronounced bowsprit and capable of carrying a large amount of sail. Some also carried a square sail.

Retourschip and Jacht

While both could have similar rigs, the Retourschip (e.g. Batavia, Zuytdorp and Zeewijk) were of the largest class of VOC vessels, while the Jacht (e.g Vergulde Draeck) was smaller and faster.

Schooner, Two, Three and Four masted

While two masted schooners on this coast were also found with topsails, Abemama had three masts and Alex T Brown had four. Both were fore and aft rigged throughout.

Schooner, Topsail

A vessel of two or more masts fore and aft rigged throughout, but with square sails on the fore top mast.

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The 1760 British Yawl: Evolution of a Ship’s Boat

Pearl Harbor Day’s annual remembrance on Dec. 7 generally sends me searching for images from that horrible attack. Visiting the Pearl Harbor Naval Memorial in Hawaii some years ago was one of the most memorable moments of my life, as I gazed down at the hull of the  U.S.S. Arizona,  trying to imagine what it was like years before. I remember sitting outside by the harbor and listening intently to stories about that day from two Navy veteran survivors of the attack as smoke rose some distance behind them from burning sugarcane fields. Simultaneously, a small plane flew overhead and, added to the stories, which all worked together to take me back in time to have a glimpse into our nation’s past.

One image that I came across this year was of the U.S. Navy launches tending the U.S. Pacific Fleet’s burning wrecks on that day. These humble boats share a long and distinguished history with other workboats back through time. Large vessels have always required smaller boats to transport people and supplies back and forth between vessel and shore. The evolution of these “ship’s boats” has been long, and they have earned their place among some of the most significant vessels in our maritime history.

Photo Above: Dec. 7, 1941, in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. Two U.S. Navy launches work near the capsized hull of the U.S.S. Oklahoma.

In 1952, four U.S. Coast Guardsmen made history when they performed a daring suicide mission in a 36-foot motor lifeboat facing hurricane-force winds and seventy-foot waves to rescue 36 crewmen from the  SS Pendleton , lost off Cape Cod. It was the most incredible motor lifeboat rescue in Coast Guard history and was recently immortalized in the movie “The Finest Hours” released by Disney Pictures in 2016. The film was based on a book of the same name written by Michael J. Tougias and Casey Sherman.

Photo Above: 36-foot U.S. Coast Guard Motor Lifeboat.

A century earlier, the U.S. Life Saving Service (U.S.L.S.S.), the U.S. Coast Guard’s forerunner, would train surfmen to launch lifeboats from wagons rolled into the surf to rescue individuals trapped on sinking vessels up and down the coast of the United States. One most notable area was the Outer Banks of North Carolina, dubbed “The Graveyard of the Atlantic.” The work was so dangerous; their motto was, “You have to go out; you don’t have to come back.”

Photo Above: Two 19th Century photos of U.S.L.S.S. crews with their lifeboats.

These wooden work boat’s designs had been honed and improved over time from vessels developed in the old world and made their way to our shores from Europe, particularly Scandinavia and the British Isles.

Heritage Boatworks, a Nation’s Oldest Port® program made up of a group of dedicated boat-building volunteers at the St. Augustine Lighthouse & Maritime Museum, have resurrected one such vessel. The 1760 era British “Yawl” was the 18th-century workhorse of the British Royal Navy. They were sturdy boats generally between 16 and 18 feet in length and, early on, were considered “clinker-built,” meaning that the vessel’s hull planks overlapped at the edges. Also called lapstrake planking, this technique was developed in Scandinavia. The Norwegian “Yole” was a small, sturdy fishing vessel sold in kits to the Irish and assembled by the Norwegian boat builders on arrival. The Norwegian design soon populated the Islands of Scotland and Britain in the 16th and 17th Centuries.

Photo Above Left: 19th Century Norwegian Yoles off the coast of Scotland; and Photo Above Right: Clinker vs. Carvel planking.

The English then took the design and made changes to improve cargo capacity. They replaced the sharp stern with a broader transom and made the bow blunter, increasing the number of rowers and goods that the vessel could transport. The word “Yole” morphed eventually into “Yawl,” and the lapstrake planking was replaced with an in-line method called “carvel planking.” They could be fitted with a mast and sail (as could the Yole), and sailors began to refer to their Yawls as “Jolly Boats” or merely a “Ship’s Boat.”

Photo Above: Plans for the 1760 Yawl discovered during research by the St. Augustine Lighthouse & Maritime Museum’s archaeologists.

Photo Above: Ship’s Boat (Yawl) of  H.M.S. Victory , Lord Nelson’s Flagship, Portsmouth, England.

These sturdy boats are built on a frame called a strongback. Forms that determine the hull shape are laid out on the keel after it is set on the strongback, and the boat frames and planking are built around the forms. Planking work may be done upright with forms secured to an overhead beam as pictured below or be done with the vessel inverted (see below) after framing is complete.

Photos Above: Heritage Boat Builder Dr. Jim Gaskins lays the keel on the strongback. The Yawl takes shape at the Museum Boat Works. Note the keel that’s sitting on the strongback and forms extending down from above. This was the first of two 1760 British Yawl boats built on the Museum grounds.

The second Yawl was framed in the upright position and then inverted on the strongback for planking. The beautiful lines of the carvel planking are noted, specifically where the hull planks curve back and meet the transom at the vessel’s stern. This Yawl will soon be righted to finish its fitting for the sea. The builders of these beautiful wooden vessels are all Museum volunteers who have a deep desire to preserve this dying art and are devoted to their work of retaining our maritime traditions and connection to the sea.

Photos Above: The Yawl lines at both bow and stern are simplistic beauty and functional for a working boat. The work requires extensive mathematic calculations to achieve the desired results. This was true for 17th and 18th Century shipwrights as well.

The seams between the planking will be calked with cotton batting using a calking iron and mallet. Historically, the cotton was tarred with a pitch before calking. Pitch was harvested heavily from the pine forests of Florida, Georgia, and the Carolinas in the early history of colonists arriving in North America. Production of these “Ship’s Stores” was one of the very first industries in colonial America.

 Photo Above: The launch of the first 1760 British Yawl in Salt Run below the St. Augustine Lighthouse & Maritime Museum.

From the Navy launches at Pearl Harbor to the Higgins Boats and L.S.T.’s operating with the Allied forces at Normandy during Operation Overlord, the evolution of vessels that move people and goods, soldiers and supplies, as well as the people who build and operate them, have all contributed to our nation’s maritime traditions. Keeping these traditions alive is a primary mission of the St. Augustine Lighthouse & Maritime Museum. You may visit our Heritage Boat Builders at the Museum, generally on Tuesday, Wednesday, or Thursday mornings before noon, to appreciate the fine craftsmanship they produce every week, or you may consider becoming a volunteer yourself.

Photos Above: Higgins Boat landing craft and the larger L.S.T. delivering troops, vehicles,  and supplies on D-Day, Jun. 6, 1944.

No matter how large or small, the ship’s boat, known as the Yawl, is one of a few vessels that started it all. A bit of well-crafted wood, a rigged sail, and a crew to row her is all that is needed to have a look back in time to our humble beginnings of humans working on the water.

About the Author: Rick Cain

Rick Cain has worked for the St. Augustine Lighthouse & Maritime Museum for 18 years after a 20-year career as a health care professional.

He serves on the Board of Directors of the American Lighthouse Council and is Immediate Past Chair of the Florida Attractions Association. He also works closely with the United States Coast Guard to maintain their historical ties to the Museum.

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An Introduction to Ship Types During the Age of Sail

There were many different types of ships during the Age of Sail, and all were defined based on their size, the number of masts they had, the shape of their hull and their rigging (the size and shape of sails arranged on however many masts). Not all types of rigging are mutually exclusive. For example, the descriptor “ fore-and-aft  rigged” is very general, denoting only that all the sails run parallel to the centerline of the vessel. It is possible for a ship to be “ fore-and-aft  rigged” with many different shapes of sails (triangular, trapezoid, etc.), which would further narrow down the type of ship.

The two most important words to help you understand the following definitions are  bow  and  stern . For the purposes of the geography of any ship, the bow is the front and the stern is the back. They are roughly equal to the terms  fore  and  aft , with  fore  meaning “towards the bow” and  aft  meaning “towards the stern”. (This is probably an oversimplification but it will get you through which is the important thing!)

|A|   |B|   |C|   |D|   |E|   |F|   |G|   |H|   |I|   |J|   |K|   |L|   |M|   |N|   |O|   |P|   |Q|   |R|   |S|   |T|   |U|   |V| |W|   |X|   |Y|   |Z| A

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A small single-masted sailing vessel, used in the 15th and 16th centuries.

baltimore clipper

A two-masted  fore-and-aft  schooner-like ship also carrying square sails on the  foremast  and often used in the role of a blockade-runner or privateer. The masts were set at extreme angles, as it was believed at the time to provide for better speed. Baltimore clippers were also used to transport prospectors and settlers from the East Coast to the West Coast during the California gold-rush.

barca-longa

A two- or three-masted Mediterranean vessel carrying  lugsails .

barque longue

A relatively small 17th century two-masted  square-rigged  sailing vessel best known for its use by early Fench explorers.

A 17th century long and narrow ship’s boat, rowed by 10 to 20 oars, often used to transport senior officers.

A vessel  square-rigged  on all but the aftermost mast, which is  fore-and-aft  rigged. Also spelled  Barque . Most were three-masted, some were four- or five-masted vessels. Before the mid 18th century the term  Barque  was also often used for any three-masted vessel not fitting any other accepted nomenclature or category.

A sailing ship with from three to five masts of which only the  foremast  is  square-rigged , the others all being  fore-and-aft  rigged. Also spelled  Barquentine .

A small two-masted merchant sailing ship, similar to a brigantine, used mainly on Dutch coastal routes and canals. Rarely larger than 100 tons  burthen . She carried a  fore-and-aft  lateen main-sail bent to a yard hanging at about 45 degrees to the mast

An ancient Greek or Roman war galley propelled by two tiers of oars on each side.

A small open vessel for travel on water by rowing or sailing.

In the age of sail, boats were essential equipment on any ship. Used as a , for shore landing parties, towing, warping, rescue missions, patrols, escape from mutiny, to mention only a few purposes. Boats came in a variety of shapes and sizes depending on time-period and function: barges, cutters, dinghies, gigs, launches, longboats, pinnaces, shallops, skiffs and yawls.

A small single-masted Dutch vessel with an extreme rounded stern and bow, normally carrying . It had a very shallow draft but a relatively tall mast, limiting its use to inland canals, rivers and lakes.

bomb vessel

Developed by the French to battle the Barbary corsairs, these vessels used high trajectory mortars instead of conventional guns. The hull was strengthened to take the weight of one or more mortars and the  foremast  was completely omitted. Late 18th century bomb vessels would have had a full three-masted rig, and were often used for polar expeditions since their hulls were so sturdily built and would hold up better in the ice.

A two-masted vessel,  square-rigged  on both masts. The rear mast carries a  fore-and-aft  boom-sail as well. In the 17th century the term Brig was also used as short for Brigantine, which then could be any variety of two-masted  square-rigged  vessels depending on nation and region.

A two-masted vessel with square sails on the  foremast  and  fore-and-aft  sails on the  mainmast . See also Hermaphrodite Brig. In the 17th century the term Brigantine was also used to describe any variety of small two-masted  square-rigged  vessels.

A relatively large two or sometimes three-masted European sailing vessel dating from the 15th through the 17th century, used mainly for the North-Sea herring fishery. Up to about 200 tons in size.

A long narrow rowboat, similar to a skiff, used in the Middle East and is also the name of a light sailing vessel used in the eastern Mediterranean

A small, light and swift sailboat with a single triangular sail and an outrigger, originating in the East Indies. Also called Proa.

A relatively small but highly manoeuvrable Portuguese vessel of the 15th and 16th centuries setting lateen sails on two or three masts and sometimes a square sail on the  foremast . Each mast increased in size from the one aft of it. When was classified as a ‘caravela latina’, when modified as a  square-rigged  vessel was classified as a ‘caravela redonda’.

A large sailing vessel developed from the earlier cog, in use from the 14th to the 17th century, usually with elevated structures known as castles at the

bow and stern.

A variety of  square-rigged  speed-built merchant ships built between 1790 and 1870. Often thought of as some of the most beautiful and elegant sailing vessels ever built. The three-masted Cutty Sark on display at Greenwich, England may well be the best known of the clippers.

Mediterranean equivalent for the Northern European cog. Introduced to the Mediterranean in the 14th century, a cocca was a one- or two-masted  square-rigged  and vessel. Also  Coca ,  Cocha or  Cocche .

A single-masted vessel used until the 15th century. The Cog originated in Northern Europe and spread throughout the Baltic and to the Mediterranean. The first mention of a cog is from 948 AD in Muiden near Amsterdam. Even though the usual clinker construction limited the ultimate size of a cog, the English chronicler Thomas Walsingham speaks of great cogs in 1331 with three decks and over 500 crew and soldiers. A cog is characterised by high sides, a relatively flat bottom, rounded  bilge  and a single square sail Also  Kog  (Dutch).

A broad beamed and shallow draught merchant sailing ship. They were designed to transport coal between ports. The HMS Bark Endeavour was a Whitby collier.

Smallest of all the three-masted  square-rigged  sailing warships. Used mainly for reconnaissance also called a ‘sloop-of-war’ and could be classified as a small frigate. Armed with 8-22 guns on only one deck.

A small single-masted and slow merchant vessel. Built solely for maximum hold capacity, not for it’s sailing qualities.

A small rounded boat made of hides stretched over a wicker frame; still used in some parts of Great Britain. Also called Coracle.

1. A fast-sailing single-masted vessel usually setting double and used for patrol and dispatch services. Cutters were the ships of choice for English smugglers during the 18th century. The largest were up to 150 tons burden and could carry up to 12 guns. 2. A clinker built ship’s boat used for travel between ship and shore.

A small rowing or sailing boat, often a to a larger vessel.

A sailing vessel that originated in the Middle East. Early dhows were of shell-first construction. Most dhows are known by names referring to their hull shape.

The  ghanjah  is a large vessel with a curved stem and a sloping, often ornately carved .

The  baghlah , was the traditional deep-sea dhow; it had a with five windows and a  poop  deck similar to European galleons.

Double-ended dhows, like the  boom , have both stem and stern posts.

The  battil , featured long stems topped by large, club-shaped stemheads and sternposts decorated with cowrie shells and leather.

The  badan  was a smaller and shallow draught vessel.

A two-masted Dutch fishing-vessel resembling a ketch.

A small, narrow, flat-bottomed and shallow draft boat of between 15 to 20 ft in length, usually with high sides and a sharp prow, propelled by oars. Also spelled  Dorey  (British).

east indiaman

A large and heavily armed European merchantman used for trade between Europe and the East-Indies.

A narrow, swift, sailing vessel used on the Nile and in the Mediterranean.

Sailing warship with 32-44 guns (1779).

A ship or boat that is deliberately set on fire and steered to collide with a larger enemy ship in order to set it on fire and destroy it. Fireships were often used in the 17th century to finish off disabled enemy vessels.

Sailing ‘ship of the line’ warship with 100 or more guns on three gun decks (1779).

The sailing warship carrying the admiral (or fleet commander) and his flag. Normally the most powerful ship in a squadron or fleet.

A classic three-masted,  square-rigged  merchant ship of the 17th century, invented by the Dutch to be economical in operation, carrying the largest cargo and smallest crew possible. It had a wide, balloon-like hull rounding at the stern and bow and a very narrow, high stern. Lightly armed, they were not well-suited for dealing with pirates, privateers or any other armed opposition.

fourth rate

Sailing ‘ship of the line’ warship with 50-60 guns on two gun decks (1779).

A three-masted sailing warship with two full decks, with only one  gun deck . A frigate was armed with between 30 to 44 guns located on the  gun deck  and possibly some on the and  forecastle , used in the 18th and 19th centuries, used for escort, reconnaissance and a myriad of other duties.

A small fast sailing 17th-century shallow-draught flat-bottom Dutch ship mostly used as a coastal merchant vessel. They were also used on occasion as bomb vessels because of their stability and durability.

A large, three-masted galley/galleon hybrid of the 16th and 17th centuries that used both sails and oars. They were powerful warships of the day, very successful at the Battle of Lepanto, 1571.

A  square-rigged , three-masted (or four-masted) sailing ship in use from the 16th to the 18th centuries, particularly by the Spanish and Portuguese but also by most other European nations.

An oared fighting ship used mainly in the Mediterranean from many centuries BC until well into the 18th century. They were also used in the Baltic and by other northern European nations, just not to the same extent and duration as in the Mediterranean.

A galley  a scaloccio  is rowed by groups of three, five or seven men on a bench pulling a single oar, and a galley  ala sensile  has a single rower per oar, possibly two or three men to a bench (a terzaruolo). The top speed of a galley under full-oar has been estimated to be 7 or 8 .

Also Galiot; A light, fast galley formerly used in the Mediterranean.

Either a ship that appears as a ghostly apparition such as the  Flying Dutchman , or a ship which is found floating at sea with no sign of the crew, such as the  Mary Celeste .

1.A two-masted coastal vessel carrying  lugsails . 2.A wide beamed 18th century ship’s boat, often reserved for use by a ship’s captain.

hermaphrodite brig

A two-masted vessel,  square-rigged  on the  foremast  and  fore-and-aft  rigged with a square  topsail  on the  mainmast .

1.Slang for an outdated, obsolete, unwieldy, or just ugly vessel. 2.A small fishing vessel using hooked (baited) lines. Also  Hoeker  (Dutch).

A single-, two- or even three-masted European coastal merchant and fishing vessel from the 17th and 18th century.

1.A medieval ship with the ends of the planks fitted parallel to the stern and sternposts. 2.A ship that has fallen into disuse or is used in a static role i.e. sheer hulk or prison hulk.

All purpose boat onboard a ship.

A Chinese sailing vessel with bamboo sail battens and a long overhanging counter; originally developed during the 5th century.

A two-masted sailing vessel with the stepped forward of the rudder head. They were usually  fore-and-aft  rigged but could have square sails. Sizewise, they were usually from 100 to 250 tons  burthen . Often used in the role as a bombard vessel.

A clinker built Viking merchant ship, exceptionally sturdy in rough seas. Broader in the and more draught than a longship. They were also more reliant on the use of sails for propulsion, rather than oars. Also  Knorr .

An anchored ship acting as a floating lighthouse where building a lighthouse was not possible or impractical. Lightships would display a light at the top of a mast and in case of fog would sound a fog signal.

Name for Russian river, lake and sea vessels until the 16th century and later.

Langskip. Generally thought of as the Viking war ship. It was a 45–75ft (14–23m) galley with up to 10 oars on each side, a square sail on a removable mast, and a 50–60-man capacity. Double-ended and built shell-first with overlapping planks (clinker built).

The largest boat carried aboard a larger sea going vessel. Propelled by sail or oars.

A small ship rigged with one or more  lugsails  on two or three masts, and usually one, two or three jibs were set on the . Luggers usually outperformed  square-rigged  vessels in coastal tideways but required a larger crew then a  square-rigged  vessel of similar size. Often used by smugglers and privateers around the English Channel in the 18th century.

A term applied to a ship specifically built for the purpose of war. Instances of the term ‘man-of-war’ to indicate a warship are found as early as 1484.

merchantman

Any vessel used for trade. The combined term of ‘merchant’ and ‘man’ occurs as early as 1473.

A small 16th century coastal merchantman carrying a square sail on a single mast.

A classic medium-sized Spanish vessel of the age of exploration, having a fully developed three-masted rig and often a small  topsail  on the  mainmast .

1.Also called a roundship, a single-masted ship used in Europe during the middle-ages until the 14th century, for example as transportation for the crusades. Descendant of the Viking longship a Nef still had a side-rudder and was used in Northern regions a century or two longer with a sternpost-rudder. 2.A French word for ship. 3.Drinking vessel in the shape of a ship.

packet ship

The generic name given to a vessel that sailed in regular service between two ports.

A one to three-masted dhow-like vessel used off the west coast of India.

p enteconter

An ancient Greek galley with 50 oars, 25 each side set in a single bank.

Dutch term for a small open fishing vessel.

1.A variety of relatively small sailing vessels having generally two  fore-and-aft  rigged masts. 2.A 17th century ship’s boat, usually rowed with eight oars.

A sea-robber, or an armed ship that roams the seas without any legal commission, and seizes or plunders any vessel she meets indiscriminately, whether friend or foe. Some other names for a pirate were  buccaneer ,  freebooter  and  skimmer .

A three-masted Mediterranean vessel, usually  square-rigged  on the  mainmast , and on the  foremast  and . Some of them however carried square sails on all three masts. They carried one piece masts, neither  topmast  nor were present.

A variety of large Phoenician, Greek or Roman war galleys. In these large ‘Polyremes’, there were only two levels of oars, each being rowed by half the men indicated by the number. For instance, in an octoreme (8), there were 2 banks of oars, each rowed by 4 men, on each side of the ship. In a ‘decareme’ (10), each oar was manned by 5.

An ancient boat made from clay or similar material for use in inland waterways.

A person or private vessel intent on raiding enemy shipping in wartime for the purpose of making a profit from the sale of captured ships, including whatever cargo would be onboard. A privateer could be described as a commissioned pirate. Dangerous business all-around, often a privateer would mistake a ‘friendly’ ship for fair game with the consequence of rapidly being ‘promoted’ from privateer to pirate.

A small square ended rowboat.

A small two-masted vessel, common in Egypt around the 11th century, sailing down the Nile from Cairo and as far west as Tunisia and Sicily.

quarter boat

A boat hung from or located on a ship’s quarter.

quinquereme

A Mediterranean war galley having three banks of oars, the oars on the top two levels being pulled by two men each, the lower level oar being pulled by a single man. The quinquereme (5 rowers) was developed from the earlier trireme, rowed by three levels (or banks) of oars, each rowed by a single man. It was used by the Greeks of the Hellenistic period and later by the Carthaginians and Romans, from the 4th century BC to about the 1st century AD.

In 1653 the British Admiralty’s Fighting Instructions classified the size and capabilities (guns mounted) of a sailing warship into 6 distinct rates. A first rate being the largest and most capable, a sixth rate being the least. The number of guns carried by a ship of a certain rate changed from time to time. Only the first four rates were considered fit for duty as ‘ships of the line’, all though fifth and sixth rates did join the battle from time to time.

retour ship

Generic name for a collection of different but relatively heavily armed, and well-manned merchant ships of the Dutch East India Company (Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie, or VOC). They were specifically designed for the long roundtrip (retour) voyage from the Netherlands to the East Indies.

A medieval merchant sailing ship with a rounded stern and bow, as opposed to a sharp double-ended longship. A roundship often had a two-masted rig with a small foresail. Also called a nef.

A vessel rigged with  fore-and-aft  sails on two or more masts. A  topsail  schooner sets one or two square sails on the  foremast  as well. Many further sub-divisions can be made such as Tern Schooners, Scow Schooners, Coastal Schooners and Grand Banks Schooners such as the Bluenose.  Bald Headed Schooner  is a term for a Schooner having/setting no topsails at all.

A variety of flat-bottomed vessels used for carrying cargo, often having a sloping square bow and stern. Similar to a barge, simple hull construction and maximum cargo capacity.

s cow schooner

A flat-bottomed square-ended schooner-rigged vessel used mainly in the latter half of the 19th century on the Great Lakes and North-American coastal routes. Scow schooners often used centerboards or and the name scow refers to the shape of the hull. Scow schooners carried the bulk of cargo in North-America during the 19th century.

second rate

Sailing ‘ship of the line’ warship with 84-98 guns on three or two gun decks (1779).

1.A two-masted ship usually carrying  lugsails . 2.A 17th century ship’s boat, used as a . Shallops had no keel but used instead. A shallop could be propelled by oars or sails.

A cut-down, old ship fitted with a pair of sheers, used to hoist masts up to another ship that was being built or repaired.

In the 18-19th centuries a ship was defined as a first rank sailing vessel having a and three or more  square-rigged  masts (), each composed of a  lowermast , a  topmast , and often a .

Many earlier and other definitions of ship exist, just think of a single-masted Viking  ship  for example.

ship of the line

A sailing warship built to fight in the line of battle. The ‘line of battle’ meant that each ship would form in a line thus allowing each ship to fire full  broadside  salvos at the opponent. Ships of the line were usually all of fourth rate or above, most were third-rate ships of 74 guns.

Sailing warship with 20-30 guns (1779).

A small flat-bottomed ship’s boat, having a sharp pointed bow and a square stern. Could be propelled by oars or sail.

A single-masted  fore-and-aft  rigged vessel setting a and generally a single jib, or headsail (sometimes double – double-headsail sloop). Sloop and cutter are almost indistinguishable today, generally a sloop has her mast located more forward than a cutter.

sloop-of-war

A name given to the smallest three-masted sailing warships, having 8 to 22 cannon on only one deck. They were either fully rigged as ships (three-masted ship-sloop) or as snows. Also sometimes called ‘corvette’ (0riginally a French term) but brigs (two-masted brig-sloop) and cutters were also sometimes classified as sloops-of-war.

A small two-masted coastal fishing or merchant vessel,  fore-and-aft  rigged and very similar to a ketch.

A large two-masted sailing vessel, similar to a Brig.

“A Brig bends her boom-sail (or trysail) to the  mainmast , while a Snow bends it to a trysail mast ( a small third mast stepped immediately aft of the  mainmast ): in other respects these two vessels are alike.” (Young’s Nautical Dictionary 1846.)

spiegelschip

Dutch term for a vessel with a distinctive flat stern, with  spiegel  meaning  mirror .

Small sail and/or oar powered transport vessel used from the dark ages to about the late 12th century. Early medieval equivalent of a landing craft, they had doors used as ramps for loading and unloading men and their horses. Possibly derived from earlier Roman horse transports.

A small and nimble single- or two-masted sailing vessel originating in the Middle East and the north coast of Africa. Like the xebec, it is often associated with the Barbary corsairs.

A vessel attending to another vessel, in particular one that ferries supplies and personnel between ship and shore.

Sailing ‘ship of the line’ warship with 64-80 guns on two gun decks (1779).

A Dutch flat-bottomed vessel with rounded ends and . Used to carry freight and also often used as a pleasure yacht.

An ancient Greek galley with 30 oars, 15 each side set in a single bank.

An ancient Phoenician, Greek or Roman war galley propelled by three tiers (banks) of oars on each side, each oar being pulled by a single man, used from the 7th to the 4th century BC. Upper level oarsmen were called  thranites , middle level  zygites  and lower level oarsmen were called  thalamites . The hull was shell-first, mortise-and-tenon construction, planked with fir, cedar or pine while the keel was made of oak.

turtle ship

A 16th-century Korean armoured warship called Geobukseon or Kobukson in Korean. It was fitted with an iron shell (top) and sharp spikes for protection and to prevent boarding. They were developed and built by Admiral YI, SOON SHIN in 1592 who led Korea to victory in the IM JIN WAR (Korea vs. Japan; 1592-1598). The hull was built from red pine and a turtle ship carried cannons with such names as Heaven and Earth or in Korean, Chon and Ji. Comparable to a European 12 and 7pdr cannon respectively.

west indiaman

A relatively heavily armed European merchantman used for trade between Europe, Africa and the Americas.

A sturdy purpose build vessel with a large hold. Intended for the catching of whales, many were used on polar expedition and/or by Navies around the world because of their sturdy nature.

A light and fast 17th century ship’s boat.

A relatively small three-masted vessel favored by the Barbary corsairs operating off the coast of North Africa. These ships had long narrow hulls, and were fitted with oars like their galley predecessors. The xebec was adopted by the French and Spanish navies and called a  chebec .

Any of a variety of small sailing vessels. Often a personal transportation watercraft or a personal pleasure boat; i.e. captain’s yacht, royal yacht.

1. A small two-masted sailing vessel with the stepped astern of the rudder post. Similar to a ketch, which has its stepped forward of the rudder head or post. 2. A ship’s boat similar to, but smaller than a pinnace, usually rowed by four to six oars.

A 16th century Spanish sailing vessel, smaller then a Galleon or Carrack. Zabra’s were used for dispatch, transport and other utilitarian duties.

Definitions courtesy of  Art of the Age of Sail . Introduction copyright The Dear Surprise.

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The speed of Europe’s 18th-century sailing ships is revamping history’s view of the Industrial Revolution

Economists have long seen the Industrial Revolution as a transformation of belching coal stacks and fiery furnaces. That’s not wrong, but it misses the sweeping changes that occurred across the British economy, setting the stage for our modern world.

Two economists from the University College Dublin wanted to see how 18th century British advancements were finding their way into other sectors. To get this data, Morgan Kelly and Cormac Ó Gráda reconstructed oceanic climate conditions from ships’ daily logs between 1750 and 1850. They drew on 280,000 log book entries from the British Royal Navy and East India Company with location, wind speed, and direction data collected by climate researchers in earlier research. This allowed Kelly and Gráda to estimate the ships’ velocities over a century of global exploration and trade.

In a a paper published this month, the two economists found that the technology of British sailing ships raced ahead during this time. Changes in hull design such as copper plating (reducing drag from fouling weed and barnacles), efficient sails, and iron joints and bolts that replaced wooden ones steadily improved sailing speeds, and sea worthiness.

Between 1750 and 1830, the speed of British ships rose by about 50%. Interestingly, the sailing performance of ships from countries where industrialization was less advanced such as the Netherlands and Spain lagged significantly behind. Dutch vessels were sailing to the East Indies almost as slowly in 1790 as in 1600, the authors state. Most gains for the British ships were at high winds blowing at least 25 knots (28.7 mph), an advance that gave the new ships swift sturdiness in treacherous waters in the Atlantic and rounding Africa’s blustery Cape of Good Hope on the way to lucrative trading grounds.

Although economic historians have portrayed the Industrial Revolution of the late 18th century as “anything but revolutionary” outside sectors such as  cotton, iron, and steam , the authors argue ”a growing literature now highlights how widespread progress occurred across the British economy.” Oceanic freight by sail can now take its place alongside the rest of the transformations aided by the Industrial Revolution.

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Classic Frigates

Frigates Studied Shtandard HMS Surprise Hermione USS Constitution HMS Trincomanlee La Belle Poule Dom Fernando HNLMS Bonaire

Birth of a new warship: The Frigate

“Frigates” is a familiar term of naval nomenclature today. With naval technology advances and growth, the type is admitted stuck between two classes: Destroyers and Corvettes. They are in service in all major and secondary navies today, but by their armament and capabilities, they are somewhat close to destroyers in versatility. It was not meant to be. The current definition is coming a long way, which we are going to determine.

Cruisers are the true inheritance of the old concept of a “Frigate”. Essentially light, fast ships able to perform reconnaissance, long range patrols and commerce raiding missions individually, detached from the main battle fleet. Powerfully armed and very fast to be able to survive their equivalent and flee their larger opponents, this is strangely reminiscent of the classic sailing frigates.

However with the arrival of the cruiser, and later the destroyer, Frigates disappeared. The term was resurrected for small ships, larger than corvettes, and sometimes seen as long range ASW specialists. But what is a bit misleading today is that Frigates are largely seen as versatile and as much capable and large as destroyers. This is very clear in the actual FFX program of the US Navy. Would Frigates will eventually replace destroyers in the long run, which themselves eclipsed cruisers ? Or will they find their right place in the modern nomenclature ?. Future will tell.

Return of the Frigate in WW2 and the cold war

Wit the enormous diversification and mass production of WW2, the term of “Frigate” was resurrected, applied to British ships, essentially similar to the USN escort destroyers. They were, like corvettes, ASW dedicated ships, but properly military platforms, with longer range and better speed than Corvettes as the latter were often from civilian yards, in particular the minimalist “Flower” class, essentially whalers. Frigates retook their place in cold war navies in this guise, but on the long run they embraced modularity and specialization. AA frigates started to emerge, and in turn truly versatile ships, “budget destroyers” for small navies that can’t afford proper destroyers.

All these theoretical roles does not tell how much the creation of the first frigates represented such a leap forward in naval thinking and shipbuilding, that we are about to see here, going back to the roots:

XVIIth Century Naval Nomenclature

The art of naval warfare was perfected during the era of the first large national fleets with globalist ambitions, in particular, the early XVIIth Century, with the rivalry between France, England and Holland. The Galleon of the past century mutated into the “ship of the line” when the line was adopted as a main tactic to maximise broadside firepower. These ships of the line were later classed by the number of guns, sometimes decks (only covered decks were counted), and sometimes class to make a difference.

The largest were 100+ guns, with three covered decks (four total), but they appeared at the turn of the 18th Century. But the most common were ships of 65-90 guns, sometimes ordered by class, down to the VIth rate. The latter were in general 20-28 guns ships with just one covered deck. Frigates emerged often larger than this, but Corvettes fit into this size. One must understand that classic navies which emerged in the 1600s and practised the battle line tactic were rather monolithic, with three-masted vessels classed by their firepower.

Alongside existed “naval dust”, cutters, fluyts, pinnaces, all sorts of civilian ships used ad hoc, with only the corsairs to drive forward new fast, well-armed types like the brick and hooker, the sloop. The Frigate (and the Corvette which appeared later as a smaller version) were new concepts which tremendous consequences. To find an analogy on land, they represented the cavalry.

The classic warship at the beginning of 1600 was the “man-o-war”, a tall ship with high forecastles. There was a clear line between these “battle wagons”, slow and ponderous and the “naval dust” constituted by smaller ships used for reconnaissance (Corvettes), supply, or communication between vessels, in alternative to the flag system. The latter were dispatch vessels, called in French “aviso” and kept their subsidiary role in the XIXth century by embracing steam power. But there was definitively nothing in between.

Mediterranean Frigates

Frigates had an ancient and interesting origin. The term itself came from Mediterranean nomenclature for late half-galleys in the XVth Cent. Italian fregata, or Fragatao for the Spanish, Catalan, Portuguese and Sicilians, fregat for the Dutch and Frégate for the French. The term is perhaps a “slang” version of the old Latin “aphractus” or Greek “Aphraktoi” meaning “no deck” to indicate this was a small and light ship or “undefended”.

The term stayed in use later for a new type of ship, at first developed and used by Barbary corsairs and soon adopted by all navies: The Xebec. This was essentially a galley without oars, or only using rows in flat sea and in harbors, but relying on well developed lateen sails on three masts for speed, and using small artillery on her broadsides.

The type was especially popular at the end of the XVIIth century and wit European influence began to shift to the ‘Polacca/Polacre’, mixing square sails woth the same hull. One can argue that the XVth Century Galeasses and following Galleons were the same concept on a larger scale. But the Xebecs were really the “speed boats” of their time, and often were associated with the Frigate, giving the hybrid “Xebec-Frigate”, popular in the late XVIII-XIX Cent when fully squared-rigged.

XVIIth Centuries Ocean-Going Frigates

16th cent. dunkirkers corsairs frigates.

The term, and the particular type of galley associated stayed confined into the Mediterranean until the French took over the concept for the Atlantic. The Dunkirkers , privateers from Dunkirk attacking Dutch shipping -then newly independent from Spain. Soon, they used the term of Frégate to describe their ships, and the Dutch were not long to adopt the concept as a counter-measure.

The first warship of the Royal French Navy designated “frigate” dated indeed from 1636: The Princess , probably a Spanish catch of war. The model was studied and copied by the then brand new arsenal of Brest, funded by Richelieu. Similarly in Great Britain, the first ship of this type, the Warwick Frigate , would be a copy of a Dunkirk frigate.

These first frigates were characterized by a short quarter and large poop, displaced about 400 tons and carried a single battery of about ten guns on each side, so they were 20-guns, light 6 or 8-pdr. But from the second half of the century, they received smaller caliber batteries on two decks for around forty guns. They also used often oars stuck between the the lower battery and upper open deck. “Frigates” did not designated either a particular class but was rather an adjective, “fregating”, implying particulars in construction, notably for a low ship. But those used by corsairs, smugglers and larger warships represented the thinnest and agile, fast kind available, racehorse of the seas. Here, the Aurore , a typical French Dunkirk Frigate of the 1650s.

The Dutch Frigates turned the tide

The Dutch Republic indeed as to bring the concept way further, designing larger vessels made for long navigations around the globe, protecting their trade routes against pirates and privateers. They had a better artillery, still fine lines and larger rigging in order to keep pace with thir adversaries. The Dutch already had relatively light hybrid ships such as the Fluyt, but they were way too cumbersome to fit the bill. Another kind of light hybrid that could mirror Frigates for trade was the Pinace, also built by France, Portugal and Spain.

However in a sense, the Spanish own versions of the Fregata inspired a British architect, Matthew Baker, to design his series of Elisabethan “racehorse galleons” which won the day against the Invincible Armada. They were in essence “Frigate Galleons”. But what really spawned interest in Frigates was the newly-born tactical changes of naval fighting in the 16th Century, between the British, French and Dutch. The British were the first to introduce the battle line concept, whereas the Dutch still fought in melee and accumulated defeats.

With Tromp and moreover Michiel de Ruyter, drastic changes are made to the Dutch fleet. The new admiral ship De Zeven Provincien was only the tipping point of a revolution as the Dutch fought in line with a refined signal system, planning feints and moves to incite the enemy to attack where planned. This brings victories time and again. But the newly found rigidity in combat was later a call for faster, more nimble ships still able to fight individually, detached of the main corp, just like on land, the ancient rigid hoplitic system, or the pike and musket formations of the time asked for a faster, more agile infantry, or the cavalry, to come along. Flexibility was required when it was just lost.

Nevertheless, if the new type was born in Hoorn around 1620, during the Eighty Years’ War, the Dutch definitely exchanged their heavy fleet for Frigates, generally 40-guns 500 ton vessels and their admiral, defeating the Spanish, British and French heavier ships time and again showed their mastery of the type, which flew above sand banks. The Battle of the Downs in 1639 in particular was won by these frigates, convincing British authorities to look after the type more seriously.

The British started to develop similar “long” vessels of 40 guns then turned their first two-decker “great frigates” of the third rate, 60 guns. Broadside tactics were developed around the hulls of these which were long and narrow. They always were considered as “cruisers” operating independently of the fleet for various tasks. The concept evolved with a twist, reintroducing oars at some point like the HMS Charles Galley of 1676. The type went on with some excesses, until the Royal Navy firmly capped it in the 1800s as single-decked ships of the fifth rate and exceptionally sixth-rate.

XVIII-XIXth Centuries ‘Classic’ Frigates

New french frigates (1740).

The mid-XVIIIth up to the mid-XIXth are generally regarded as the golden age of sailing Frigates. The Napoleonic wars in particular helped redefine the type and the French were keen to develop their own concept, compensating in quality what they lancked in quantities, regarding the already considerable size of the Royal Navy at that time. The French-built Médée (1740) was already such a concept when the French fleet was already equal to the Royal Navy. This vessel was square-rigged (and generously) but overall, carried all the main guns on a single continuous upper deck while the deck below, although often painted with false ports, was devoid of any armament and used for storage and crew, a “berth deck” which went below the waterline. The upper gun deck was partially armed but the ships were nevertheless somewhat top-heavy.

Fifty-nine of these French sailing frigates were built between 1777 and 1790, all capable of 14 knots thanks to a hull design mahematicaly studied using the first hydrodynamic concepts. The same care is quite evident when seeing architect drawings of the time, like those of Frederick af Chapman . Their perfect execution recalls the first 3D computer renderings. At 47, he published his ultimate achievement, the “architectura navalis mercatoria”, a reference for a century, well aware of the works of Newton and D’Alembert, his numerous exchanges in various shipbuilders of the time around Europe, and Euler’s “Scientia Navalis”, Du Monceau, De Murray. In his numerous remarkably precise drawings we recoignised early frigates such as the French Sirène and British Unicorn. Both were 24-26 guns in one single deck, plus 8-10 4-pdr guns on the aft forecastle.

British Frigates (1747)

These Frigates, and in particular their inshore handling impressed the British Royal Navy, which captured some during the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748). They were copied, starting in 1747, and after a while, improved. The basic model was 28 guns, fourteen for each broadside, all 9-pounder artillery pieces. There were also four smaller pieces installed on the above open deck, but they were not counted, nor the on-board musketry and grenades used for close combat and boarding. These 28-guns were considered 6th rate, but soon, 5th rate appeared, traduced into 32-36 guns frigates.

They had indeed an upper deck battery of twenty-six 12-pounder guns, and 6-10 smaller ones were carried on the quarter deck and forecastle for chase and retreat. However soon the British admiralty desired a larger model, and in 1778 created a 36 gun frigate (all on the main deck), which added to this were 18-pounder, for a broadside twice as powerful. Over time, the Frenc designed just before the revolution their own 38-guns, 18-pounder version, while the British responded by mass-producing three models, a very large 38-guns, the standard 36-guns and the cost-saving 32-guns. Most saw action during and after the Napoleonic war around the world, preying on trade.

American super Frigates (1797)

The American Independence of 1775 secured the country’s future in political terms, but at the time this secession from the world’s first power was not without consequences. Without a fleet, and the protection of the Royal Navy, American merchant shipping became easy picking for privateers and pirates. The case was particularly acute in the Mediterranean, from the north African Barbary corsairs. The Congress saw the utility of a fleet of frigates, less frightening than costly ships-of-the line, yet fast and strong enough in all ways to crush any opposition.

However before going into this, during the American revolution already, was built a remarkable 32-gun frigate for the Continental Navy, USS Randolph (1776). She was a “prototype” followed by 12 other Frigates including the USS Hancock, the admirative British sailors described her (after capture as HMS Iris) as the “most superb and fastest ship on earth”. However after the revolutionary war, the Continental Navy was disbanded and the last ship, in a sorry state, USS Alliance, sold in August 1785.

Nearly twenty years after, and long after Thomas Jefferson past lobbying for a navy, the Congress authorized a new class to deal with barbary corsairs, the original six frigates of the United States Navy with the Naval Act of 1794 (March 27, 1794). Indeed, the North African independent kingdoms having difficulties with the well-protected French and British convoys, used to prey on American shipping, undefended. Crews were made prisoners or killed, resold into slavery, the ships looted or ransoms asked for. Compounded by the aftermath of the French revolution and all-out war between UK and France also hitting American trade, President Washington at last secured a decision in the Congress in 1794, by a thin margin (44-46).

Secretary of War Henry Knox submitted proposals to the committee, and lately the order confirmed the acquisition and equipment of four ships to carry forty-four guns each, and two ships to carry thirty-six guns each. Since there was no Department of the Navy yet, the program fell into Knox’s Department of War. He consulted and assembled all ship architects and shipbuilders in the largest port in the USA then, Philadelphia. The end result, approved by Washington, was large enough to overcome any frigate and fast enough to escape any ship of the line. They were coined “super frigates” but their concept was in essence of early “battlecruisers”.

Elite British draftsman, Josiah Fox was hired to draw the final plans, but at the dismay of main architect Humphreys, her made them much smaller than the original. He was removed and Humphreys finalized the plans and made a model of the ship to be presented to Washington and another, half-size, to draw templates and molds. In all there were four 44-guns, USS Chesapeake, Constitution, President, United States and two 36-guns, USS Constellation and Congress. They were built, respectively at Gosport (Virginia), Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore and Portsmouth (New Hampshire). Particular care was given to the wood choices for the hull, white pine, longleaf pine, white oak, and, and southern live oak, the strongest of all. This was compounded by the very close sections of the ships and wood combinations, making projectiles bounce on the hull instead of piercing it.

The genius of the design also was to include Diagonal riders for the first time. It allowed to maintain the hull’s stiffness on the long term, distributing forces inside the structure. This was a deep design, long on keel and narrow of beam to reach 14 knots, and fitted with heavy 25-pdr guns, plus carronades on the spar deck for a total of 50 guns. Their career was long and exceptional.

As said above Frigates were “rogue ships”, used mostly as privateers. They preyed on shipping, with a crew motivated mostly by the prize, as well (and even more) their captain, often young. Bold aggressiveness and seamanship made Frigates a well appreciated school for young officers, before joining larger ships of the line. So there was some rivalry between these young officers to obtain command of such ships. Fast, well armed, free to roam the seas at will, they sometimes bring these officers a tremendous wealth, in addition to fame and recognition by other officers ad the admiralty, the perfect jump to a large 1st or 2nd rate man-o-war by age 30-40.

In one occasion, two British captains battled and captured two Spanish vessels, loaded with gold and silver. The prize was so enormous it represented 500 years of wages for both officers in one lucky swoop. However all Frigate captains were not so fortunate. Greed pushed also some to attack much larger ships as corsairs and privateers do, and lost.

Tactics-wise, these lone Frigates used all manoeuvres in the book to secure victory. Perfect knowledge of the wind to choose the right course, using all surface sail available (like using studding sails, stunsails) “even the handkerchiefs” when there was insufficient wind to close the distance, using both rigging and rudder to break speed and manoeuver quickly around another ship, were all used in order to bring the broadside to bear at the right distance. It was often judicious sometimes to wait at the last moment to fire at the perfect angle, often conceding a volley from one’s enemy, and the ideal distance was rather close given the poor accuracy and muzzle velocity of the bronze cannons of the time.

Ships pounded themselves at 50 meters (54 yards), then either manoeuvre to present the other broadside or close in even further to board the enemy ship, with swords, pistols and hand grenades, while musketeers often sniped from the fighting tops or marine troops volley-fired from the deck. One particularly praised manoeuvre of the time was to broadside the stern of the enemy ship: There were there only glass and flimsy wooden work of the officers “castle” there. Balls flew freely for the entire length of the deck, creating mayhem in the process. This was often seen as the coup de grace for a ship already crippled.

There were at least four gunnery options at that time: -The classic shot: Solid balls which penetrated wooden walls, spraying large quantities of wood splinters in the process, injuring the crew. -The incendiary shot: The same balls were white-heated in the onboard furnace. They were designed to set fire to the enemy ship. With some luck, one could hit a powder bag, or better, roll into the gunpowder magazine. On these wooden vessels with large quantities of explosives, tar and sails this meant hell in a short while. Of course this was mostly a radical tactic, without regard to the capture of the ship. -The chained shots: More complicated to operate and requiring more powder, the exercise consisted in loading a barrel with two chained balls which spinned at great speed, cutting ropes, masts, trunks and legs indifferently. -The canister shot: Also well known on land battles, these were packets of small lead bullets sprayed at will often from the upper deck’s smaller guns before boarding.

However, when committed as 5th-rate warships alongside the battle-line they were used mostly as dispatch vessels amidst the smoke of war, behind friendly lines, or salvaging sailors of sunken ships, preventing the enemy to escape, or spotting a possible reinforcement.

The last sailing Frigates (1850-1880)

The era of the American “super frigates” left a strong impression on naval construction during the post-Napoleonic era. Their influence started with the construction and invention of the Schooners, veterans of the 1912 war when they were pitted against the strongest navy on the globe. They were quickly overshadowed by the much larger Frigates of the Constitution class as seen above.

It should be noted that what was called the “Blackwall Frigates” (1840-1875) were in fact brand new, fast Indiamans copying the hull of Frigates, which were born when the ancient East India Company ceased activities in 1833, while the first steamshp line opened in the Atlantic in 1838. The first of these new generation trade sailships were built at Green & Wigham, Blackwall, hence the name. This was the 818 t. Seringatapam (1837). She was followed by many others under the same name but not necessarily at Blackwall until the Superb (1866) and Melbourne (1875) by the same Green yard but with an iron hull.

None were armed despite the name, but they were decorated with fake ports lines in intimidate possibly bad encounters on their way to India. They disappeared, condemned by the sheer speed of the Clippers. Another influence on late sailing frigates were the “clippers of baltimore”, schooners with very fine lines and which passed for the fastest sailing ships of their time, but perhaps one-masted pilot cutters. The hul shape was not only influential on the first whalers, but clippers as well and unfortunately… slave ships. Many were used for war, with a light artillery on their open deck.

The “last classic Frigates” were sailing frigates in service around the world in 1860, just when there was a revolution of steam and iron, with many conversions to steam and the first sea-going ironclads. In the Royal Navy , there were ten sailing ships of the line in the effective list, about 25 not on the effective list, including four in steam conversion, but also 28 screw frigates and, for what we are concerned, 5 sailing frigates in the effective list and 49 not in the effective list. They were reduced to harbour duties, of the 4th and 5th rank, ranging from 36 to 60 guns (HMS Jupiter) showing the American “super frigate” concept had a strong influence of shipbuilding in traditional sea powers;

In the French Navy The eternal rival of the Royal Navy was faster in recent years delivering a large steam ship-of the line (Le Napoléon) in 1855 and first sea-going Ironclad in 1859, Gloire, by the same engineer. There were 16 screw frigates in active service (36 ot 56 guns) and 19 smaller paddle frigates, but sailing frigates were however still string in the navy’s lists with 27 vessels, generally of the 52 guns type, conceding quite a large advance to the British fleet.

In the US Navy (‘Old Navy’) Just before the start of the civil war, the Union fleet counted seven screw frigates and three side-wheeled frigates, but also 15 sailing frigates (including the 1797-98 ones), large corvettes and three razeed ones (see later).

In the Russian Navy Nine screw frigates were in service or in completion in 1860, seven paddle frigates, and five sailing frigates. The type was retired for good in 1862 or converted (like the Castor).

Other fleets:

Japan was force-opened in 1853 (Commodore Perry) and the new Meiji government was keen on modernizing the fleet by swapping directly to the steam screw type Frigate; They were hardly-pressed during the Boshin war . The best known sailing frigate of the time was the US-built Fujiyama (1863). Austria-Hungary had only three 50 guns screw frigates and a single ship of the line, the Kaiser. However in construction were the Novara, Schwarzenberg, Radetzky, Adria and Donau. Prussia had two sailing frigates (Gefion and Thetis), but was building the five Arcona class screw frigates from 1855. Italy, on the verge of unity had 9 frigates (screw ) including four in construction and three sailing only at the eve of the Battle of Lissa . Turkey had a still significant battle fleet in 1860, despite crippling losses at Navarino (1827) and at Sinope in 1853, showing the extremely efficient Paixhans guns at work, the Turkish Ottoman authorities tried to revitalize and modernize the fleet, around 20 sailing Frigates were in service, including four screw frigates.

Sweden has about 11 sailing frigates, Denmark has two 42 guns screw frigates, and about 25 sailing ones (including those of the Royal Dano-Norwegian Navy). The Dutch Fleet had three screw frigates (two more in completion), and around seven sailing frigates (32 and 52 guns) in 1860. Portugal had two recent screw frigates (and two sailing ones), all modest. Spain , which quickly converted frigates to ironclads, had three screw frigates (two more in construction) three paddle frigates. Five more screw frigates will be built in the 1860s. Greek Navy was dwarved by the Turkish Ottoman Navy, with just a 26-gun sailing “frigate” among other vessels. Imperial China had virtually no modern frigates, only the paddle frigate Chiangtzu (1863) was refused and resold to the Daimyo of Satsuma, and two screw Frigates were built in 1872. Brazil in 1860 had just one single sailing frigate, just as Peru.

About the Razee These particular ships emerged after the Royal Navy had to deal with the American 44-guns Frigates during the 1812 war. Being outmanoeuvred, outgunned, this went as far as the interdiction of one-on-one duels between British and American Frigates. Building new Frigates takes time (years in order to leave the wood drying), so in the meantime, British engineers devised an ingenious shortcut, trading speed for firepower and protection: They created “heavy frigates” by scalping the upper deck of a 4th or 3th rank ship of the line, called Razee.

In practice, this created a lower, more agile vessel, more capable of engaging frigates on their own. Yet by their two complete artillery decks with heavy guns they outmatched the American firepower, and retained the very thick walls of the original ship of the line, making them impervious to the super-frigates fire. These Razeed ships in fact were much older than the war of 1812. Called “razee” because of their razeed upper deck they were built already in 1794, and another wave for 22 in total towards the end of the Napoleonic wars. The French revolutionary government in turn started to convert ships of its own, seven ships in all started in 1794. On the US Navy, the USS Independence of 1814 was also converted. Of course they were all obsolete when the new generation of super-frigates of 55-60 guns started to appear. With their heavier broadside and reinforced protection they renewed the park of warships.

Famous Frigates

Here is a work in progress which will be completed over time, with Frigates still in existence today (which can be visited), or past Frigates that were a landmark in naval history.

Shtandard (1703)

HMS Surprise (Rose) 1757

She was a small 28-guns sixth-rate replica by Phil Bolger of a 1757 ship, of the early “French type” frigate. She was used in movies such as “The Man Without a Country”, “Master and Commander”, or “Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides”. She belongs now to the Maritime Museum of San Diego.

Frederick H. af Chapman’s Frigates of the Archipelago (1780)

The Hemmemaa was the first, largest and most distinctive “frigates of the archipelago” designed by famous naval architect Frederick af Chapman. They were tailored to replaced classic sailing frigates which draught was impossible for Baltic shoals. It gave an edge to the Swedish fleet during the Second Northern war. Meawnhile the Russians launched dozens of Galleys. The Battle of Hoglund, battle of Svenska Sund were massive clashes pitting both types of ships.

L’Hermione (1779)

USS Constitution (1797)

HMS Trincomanlee (1817)

La Belle Poule (1834)

One of the finest French Frigate of the time, she was deigned by J.M. Sané on carefully laid plans, using the latest mathematical principle to shape her hull lines and construction strength. She was in essence a French replica to the American “super-frigates” but integrating all the latest advanced of the time. Carrying 60 guns on two artillery decks she was as fast, yet more agile. She could turn faster and on a tighter space due to a well-studied hull shape and rudder. She was sober, yet with a roomy officer “castle”, and continuous walls, a very elegant, black ship. The name, used for the fourth time in the Navy, was inherited from the most gorgeous woman of her time, according to Francis the 1st, which called her “La Belle Paule”, corrupted by a chronicler into “Poule”, so literally “the nice hen”. She bring back the remains of Napoleon from Saint Helena, served in Canada, the Mediterranean, and the Crimean war before being decommissioned in 1866.

Dom Fernando II e Glória (1843)

She made her maiden voyage on 2 February-4 July 1845 under Captain Torcato José Marques between Goa and Lisbon and was used to transporting troops and their equipments, settlers, colonial administrators or even convicts, banish to far way colonies. In 1852 she carried the Empress consort of Brazil Amélie of Leuchtenberg and her daughter Princess Maria Amélia of Brazil to Madeira. This was attempt to cure the tuberculosis of the latter, in vain. The Frigate Dom Fernando II e Glória also carried the explorer Portuguese explorer António da Silva Porto and his team to Angola in 1854, in order to make the first crossing of Africa, from Angola to Mozambique. In 1855, May, she served as the flagship of a naval force based in Ambriz, Angola, to support actions against a local rebellion. She also helped colonizing Huíla in Angola in 1860, carrying sheeps and horses from South Africa.

In 1865, she replaced the old Vasco da Gama as the main fleet gunnery Schoolship, a role she kept until 1878. She then departed for her last training mission to the Azores, rescuing en route the crew of the American barque Lawrence Boston. She returned in Lisbon, only to be moored permanently at the Naval Artillery School. In 1889 her masts were cut down and two redoubts fitted with modern cannons were installed as she continued to serve as an artillery ship, surviving until 1938. She was then the flagship of the river Tagus’s fleet.

Two years after as WW2 broke out, she was at last considered unfit for naval service. She housed from then on the social institution Dom Fernando, for general education and teaching seamanship to underprivileged youth. She kept this role until 3 April 1963, as during a routine maintenance a fire erupted that partially destroying her hull. She was later towed in a desolated place on the Tagus and left there to rot, half buried in the mud-flats for 29 years. Until it was decided to restore her by the National Commission for the Commemoration of the Portuguese Discoveries . She started a new career, ongoing until now, of museum ship on 12 August 1998 after full restoration, in Almada. In 22 years she will be 200 years old.

HNLMS Bonaire (1877)

A Dutch steam Frigate, without a particularly famous history, but which is preserved today in the Netherlands and therefore is in the process of being re-opened to the public. HNLMS Bonaire was launched on 12 May 1877 (At Fijenoord arsenal?) and completed at the end of the year. She was built as a 3-masted barquentine, displacing 837 long tons deadweight, for a length of 53 m (173 ft 11 in), a beam 9 m (29 ft 6 in) and draught of 3.9 m (12 ft 10 in). She was armed by one 15 cm BL gun, three 12 cm BLs orientable on the deck, two 3.7 cm turret gun, and a 120 cm mortar plus various lighter boat guns.

This screw-powered steamship of the fourth class is nonetheless the oldest remaining Dutch naval vessel built in the Netherlands, from Rotterdam, to be exact from the Nederlandsche Stoomboot Maatschappij. Its steam engine iconsisted of two Scottish boilers and a two-cylinder steam piston machine. By 1877, iron-plated hulls or iron hulls were now common, and the Bonaire’s iron hull was backed by teak beams. This woodwork was als there for fixing zinc plates, to preventing fouling. This did not worked well, however the zinc plates acted as a cathodic protection for the iron ship’s skin, preventing corrosion.

In her active life, she was deployed abroad, making a few trips to the Caribbean and firing shots against pirates from Venezuela and Colombia. In 1902 the Dutch Frigate was worn out and obsolete and she was taken out of service and converted into a lodging ship. She was next based in Hellevoetsluis and Dordrecht until 1923 and later sold to the municipality of Delfzijl. The latter used her until 1988 as a lodging ship for the Abel Tasman shipping school. The HLNMS Bonaire has been the host of Den Helder since 1996, and has been taken in hands for a full restoration in a dock since 2005.

Read More about the Bonaire and its restauration project .

Read More/Src

Constam, Angus & Bryan, Tony, British Napoleonic Ship-Of-The-Line, Osprey Publishing Conway’s all the worlds fighting ships 1860-1905 and: Gardiner, Robert (2000) Frigates of the Napoleonic Wars, Chatham Publishing Gardiner, Robert & Lambert, Andrew, (Editors), (2001) Steam, Steel and Shellfire: The Steam Warship, 1815–1905 Gardiner, Robert & Lavery, Brian (Editors) (1992) The Line of Battle: The Sailing Warship 1650-1840 Lambert, Andrew (1984) Battleships in Transition, the Creation of the Steam Battlefleet 1815–1860 Lavery, Brian (1989) Nelson’s Navy: The Ships, Men and Organisation 1793–1815. Rodger, N.A.M. ((2004)) The Command of the Ocean, a Naval History of Britain 1649–1815 Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships (DANFS) http://www.mandragore2.net/dico/lexique2/lexique2.php?page=fregate wikipedia.org/wiki/Fredrik_Henrik_af_Chapman wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_frigate_classes_of_the_Royal_Navy

Author: dreadnaughtz

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☸ To read for a better understanding of this website

⛶ pre-industrial eras, ⚔ naval battles.

• Cape Ecnomus
• Battle of the Masts
• Lake Poyang
• Crimean War 1855
• Boshin war 1860s
• US Civil War 1861-65
• The 1898 war
• Santiago July 1898
• Manila June 1898
• Elli & Lemnos (1912-13)
• Königin Luise attack (1914)
• Souchon Escape (1914)
• Antivari (1914)
• Heligoland (1914)
• Odensholm (1914)
• Tsingtao (1914)
• Cape Sarytch (1914)
• Coronel (1914)
• Falklands (1914)
• Gotland (1915)
• Emden's Odyssey (1915)
• Lake Tanganyika (1915)
• Dardanelles (1915)
• Lusitania (1915)
• Adriatic (1915-18)
• Dover Strait (1916-17)
• Jutland (1916)
• Moon Island (1917)
• Otranto Strait (1917)
• Heligoland (1917)
• Imbros (1918)
• Zeebruge raid (1918)
• Scuttling of the Hochseeflotte (1919)
• Dunkirk, May 1940
• Operation Vado 13 June 1940
• Battle of Hanko July 1941
• Battle of the Atlantic
• Malta Invasion
• Midway 4-7 June 1942
• US Amphibious Ops
• British amphibious Ops
• Operation Torch
• Operation Husky
• Operation Baytown
• Operation Avalanche
• Operation Shingle
• Operation Overlord
• Operation Anvil Dragoon
• Operation Watchover
• Goodenough Island Battle
• Operation Cleanslate
• Operation Toenails
• Makin Campaign
• Operation Galvanic
• Operation Flintlock
• Operation Catchpole
• Operation Forager
• Operation Detachment
• Operation Iceberg
• Operation Downfall

⚔ Crimean War

• Radetzky class
• Erzherzog Friedrich class
• Novara class

• Navarin class (1854)
• Duquesne class (1853)
• Fleurus class (1853)
• Montebello (1852)
• Austerlitz (1852)
• Jean Bart (1852)
• Charlemagne (1851)
• Napoleon (1850)
• Valmy (1847)
• Ocean class (1805)
• Hercules class (1836)
• Iéna class (1814)
• Jupiter (1831)
• Duperré (1840)
• Pomone (1845)
• Isly (1849)
• Bellone (1853)
• D’Assas class (1854)
• Primauguet class (1852)
• Roland (1850)

• Duke of Wellington
• Conqueror (1855)
• Marlborough (1855)
• Royal Albert (1854)
• St Jean D’Acre (1853)
• Waterloo (1833
• Sailing ships of the Line
• Sailing Frigates
• Sailing Corvettes
• Screw two deckers
• Screw frigates
• Screw Corvettes
• Screw guard ships
• Paddle frigates
• Paddle corvettes
• Screw sloops
• Paddle sloops
• Screw gunboats

⚑ 1870 Fleets

• Numancia (1863)
• Tetuan (1863)
• Vitoria (1865)
• Arapiles (1864)
• Zaragosa (1867)
• Sagunto (1869)
• Mendez Nunez (1869)
• Spanish wooden s. frigates (1861-65)
• Frigate Tornado (1865)
• Frigate Maria de Molina (1868)
• Spanish sail gunboats (1861-65)
• Ironclad Kaiser (1850-70)
• Drache class BD. Ironclads (1861)
• Kaiser Max class BD. Ironclads (1862)
• Erzherzog F. Max class BD. Ironclads (1865)
• SMS Lissa Ct. Bat. Ships (1869)
• SMS Novara Frigate (1850)
• SMS Schwarzenberg Frigate (1853)
• Radetzky class frigates (1854)
• Erzherzog Friedrich class corvettes (1853)
• SMS Helgoland Sloop (1867)

• Dannebrog (1863)
• Peder Skram (1864)
• Danmark (1864)
• Rolf Krake (1864)
• Lindormen (1868)
• Jylland CR (1860)
• Tordenskjold CR (1862)
• Dagmar SP (1861)
• Absalon class GB (1862)
• Fylla class GB (1863)

• Basileos Giorgios (1867)
• Basilisa Olga (1869)
• Sloop Hellas (1861)
• Dutch Screw Frigates & corvettes
• De Ruyter Bd Ironclad (1863)
• Prins H. der Neth. Turret ship (1866)
• Buffel class turret rams (1868)
• Skorpioen class turret rams (1868)
• Heiligerlee class Monitors (1868)
• Bloedhond class Monitors (1869)
• Adder class Monitors (1870)
• A.H.Van Nassau Frigate (1861)
• A.Paulowna Frigate (1867)
• Djambi class corvettes (1860)
• Amstel class Gunboats (1860)

• Screw 3-deckers (1850-58)
• Screw 2-deckers (1852-59)
• Screw Frigates (1849-59)
• Conv. sailing frigates
• Screw Corvettes (1846-59)
• Screw Fl. Batteries (1855)
• Paddle Frigates
• Paddle Corvettes
• screw sloops
• screw gunboats
• Sailing ships of the line
• Sailing frigates
• Sailing corvettes
• Sailing bricks
• Gloire class Bd. Ironclads (1859)
• Couronne Bd. Ironclad (1861)
• Magenta class Bd. Ironclads (1861)
• Palestro class Flt. Batteries (1862)
• Arrogante class Flt. Batteries (1864)
• Embuscade class Flt. Batteries (1865)
• Taureau arm. ram (1865)
• Belliqueuse Bd. Ironclad (1865)
• Alma Cent. Bat. Ironclads (1867)
• Ocean class CT Battery ship (1868)
• Cosmao class cruisers (1861)
• Talisman cruisers (1862)
• Resolue cruisers (1863)
• Venus class cruisers (1864)
• Decres cruiser (1866)
• Desaix cruiser (1866)
• Limier class cruisers (1867)
• Linois cruiser (1867)
• Chateaurenault cruiser (1868)
• Infernet class Cruisers (1869)
• Bourayne class Cruisers (1869)
• Cruiser Hirondelle (1869)
• Curieux class sloops (1860)
• Adonis class sloops (1863)
• Guichen class sloops (1865)
• Sloop Renard (1866)
• Bruix class sloops (1867)
• Pique class gunboats (1862)
• Hache class gunboats (1862)
• Arbalete class gunboats (1866)
• Etendard class gunboats (1868)
• Revolver class gunboats (1869)

• Barrozo class (1864)
• Brasil (1864)
• Tamandare (1865)
• Lima Barros (1865)
• Rio de Janeiro (1865)
• Silvado (1866)
• Mariz E Barros class (1866)
• Carbal class (1866)
• Osmanieh class Bd.Ironclads (1864)
• Assari Tewfik (1868)
• Assari Shevket class Ct. Ironclads (1868)
• Lufti Djelil class CDS (1868)
• Avni Illah class cas.ironclads (1869)
• Fethi Bulend class cas.ironclads (1870)
• Barbette ironclad Idjalleh (1870)
• Messudieh class Ct.Bat.ships (1874)
• Hamidieh Ct.Bat.Ironclads (1885)
• Abdul Kadir Battleships (project)
• Frigate Ertrogul (1863)
• Selimieh (1865)
• Rehberi Tewkik (1875)
• Mehmet Selim (1876)
• Sloops & despatch vessels
• Monitor Atahualpa (1865)
• CT. Bat Independencia (1865)
• Turret ship Huascar (1865)
• Frigate Apurimac (1855)
• Corvette America (1865)
• Corvette Union (1865)

• Bartolomeu Dias class (28-guns) steam frigates
• Sagris (14 guns) steam corvette
• Vasco Da Gama (74 guns) Ship of the Line
• Dom Fernando I e Gloria (50) Sailing Frigate
• Dom Joao I class (14 guns) Sailing corvettes
• Portuguese Side-wheel steamers

• Formidabile class (1861)
• Pr. de Carignano class (1863)
• Re d'Italia class (1864)
• Regina maria Pia class (1863)
• Roma class (1865)
• Affondatore (1865)
• Palestro class (1865)
• Guerriera class (1866)
• Cappelini class (1868)
• Sesia DV (1862)
• Esploratore class DV (1863)
• Vedetta DV (1866)

• Ironclad Ruyjo (1868)
• Ironclad Kotetsu (1868)
• Frigate Fujiyama (1864)
• Frigate Kasuga (1863)
• Corvette Asama (1869)
• Gunboat Raiden (1856)
• Gunboat Chiyodogata (1863)
• Teibo class GB (1866)
• Gunboat Mushun (1865)
• Gunboat Hosho (1868)

• Prinz Adalbert (1864)
• Arminius (1864)
• Friedrich Carl (1867)
• Kronprinz (1867)
• K.Whilhelm (1868)
• Arcona class Frigates (1858)
• Nymphe class Frigates (1863)
• Augusta class Frigates (1864)
• Jäger class gunboats (1860)
• Chamaleon class gunboats (1860)

• Ironclad Sevastopol (1864)
• Ironclad Petropavlovsk (1864)
• Ironclad Smerch (1864)
• Pervenetz class (1863)
• Charodeika class (1867)
• Admiral Lazarev class (1867)
• Ironclad Kniaz Pojarski (1867)
• Bronenosetz class monitors (1867)
• Admiral Chichagov class (1868)
• S3D Imperator Nicolai I (1860)
• S3D Sinop (1860)
• S3D Tsessarevich (1860)
• Russian screw two-deckers (1856-59)
• Russian screw frigates (1854-61)
• Russian screw corvettes (1856-60)
• Russian screw sloops (1856-60)
• Varyag class Corvettes (1862)
• Almaz class Sloops (1861)
• Opyt TGBT (1861)
• Sobol class TGBT (1863)
• Pishtchal class TGBT (1866)

• Ericsson class monitors (1865)
• Frigate Karl XIV (1854)
• Frigate Stockholm (1856)
• Corvette Gefle (1848)
• Corvette Orädd (1853)

• Skorpionen class (1866)
• Frigate Stolaf (1856)
• Frigate Kong Sverre (1860)
• Frigate Nordstjerna (1862)
• Frigate Vanadis (1862)
• Glommen class gunboats (1863)

• Union Sailing ships
• USS New Ironsides (1862)
• USS monitor (1862)
• USS Galena (1862)
• Passaic class
• USS Roanoke
• USS Onondaga
• Miantonomoh class
• USS Dictator
• USS Puritan
• Canonicus class
• Kalamazoo class
• Milwaukee class
• Casco class
• USS Keokuk (1862)
• Wampanoag class (1864)
• USS Chattanooga (1864)
• USS Idaho (1864)
• Ossipee class (1862)
• USS Sacramento (1862)
• Ticonderoga class (1862)
• Unadilla class gunboats (1861)
• Kansas class (1862)
• Octorara class (1862)
• Sassacus class (1862)
• Mohongo class (1863)
• USS Spuyten Duyvil (1864)
• USS Alligator (1862)

• CSS Frederickburg (1862)
• CSS Savannah (1863)
• CSS Stonewall (1864)
• CSS Virginia II
• CSS Tennessee
• CSS Nashville
• Commerce Raiders
• Ajax class Iron Gunboats
• CSS David (1862)
• CSS HL Hunley (1863)
• Dunderberg Bd Ironclad (1865)
• Wampanoag class frigates (1864)
• Frigate Chattanooga & Idaho (1864)
• Frigate Idaho (1864)
• Java class frigates (1865)
• Contookook class frigates (1865)
• Frigate Trenton (1876)
• Swatara class sloops (1865)
• Alaska class sloops (1868)
• Galena class sloops (1873)
• Enterprise class sloops (1874)
• Alert class sloops (1873)
• Alarm torpedo ram (1873)
• Intrepid torpedo ram (1874)

⚑ 1890 Fleets

• Parana class (1873)
• La Plata class (1875)
• Pilcomayo class (1875)
• Ferre class (1880)
• Custoza (1872)
• Erzherzog Albrecht (1872)
• Kaiser (1871)
• Kaiser Max class (1875)
• Tegetthoff (1878)
• Radetzky(ii) class (1872)
• SMS Donau(ii) (1874)
• SMS Donau(iii) (1893)
• Erzherzog Friedrich class (1878)
• Saida (1878)
• Fasana (1870)
• Aurora class (1873)
• Hai An class frigates (1872)

• Tordenskjold (1880)
• Iver Hvitfeldt (1886)
• Skjold (1896)
• Cruiser Fyen (1882)
• Cruiser Valkyrien (1888)

• Spetsai class (1889)
• Nauarchos Miaoulis (1889)
• Greek Torpedo Boats (1881-85)
• Greek Gunboats (1861-84)
• Gunboat St Michael (1970)
• Gunboat "1804" (1875)
• Gunboat Dessalines (1883)
• Gunboat Toussaint Louverture (1886)
• Konigin der Netherland (1874)
• Draak, monitor (1877)
• Matador, monitor (1878)
• R. Claeszen, monitor (1891)
• Evertsen class CDS (1894)
• Atjeh class cruisers (1876)
• Cruiser Sumatra (1890)
• Cruiser K.W. Der. Neth (1892)
• Banda class Gunboats (1872)
• Pontania class Gunboats (1873)
• Gunboat Aruba (1873)
• Hydra Gunboat class (1873)
• Batavia class Gunboats (1877)
• Wodan Gunboat class (1877)
• Ceram class Gunboats (1887)
• Combok class Gunboats (1891)
• Borneo Gunboat (1892)
• Nias class Gunboats (1895)
• Koetei class Gunboats (1898)
• Dutch sloops (1864-85)

• Friedland CT Battery ship (1873)
• Richelieu CT Battery ship (1873)
• Colbert class CT Battery ships (1875)
• Redoutable CT Battery ship (1876)
• Courbet class CT Battery ships (1879)
• Amiral Duperre barbette ship (1879)
• Terrible class barbette ships (1883)
• Amiral Baudin class barbette ships (1883)
• Barbette ship Hoche (1886)
• Marceau class barbette ships (1888)
• Cerbere class Arm.Ram (1870)
• Tonnerre class Br.Monitors (1875)
• Tempete class Br.Monitors (1876)
• Tonnant ironclad (1880)
• Furieux ironclad (1883)
• Fusee class Arm.Gunboats (1885)
• Acheron class Arm.Gunboats (1885)
• Jemmapes class (1892)
• Bouvines class (1892)
• La Galissonière Cent. Bat. Ironclads (1872)
• Bayard class barbette ships (1879)
• Vauban class barbette ships (1882)
• Prot. Cruiser Sfax (1884)
• Prot. Cruiser Tage (1886)
• Prot. Cruiser Amiral Cécille (1888)
• Prot. Cruiser Davout (1889)
• Forbin class Cruisers (1888)
• Troude class Cruisers (1888)
• Alger class Cruisers (1891)
• Friant class Cruisers (1893)
• Prot. Cruiser Suchet (1893)
• Descartes class Cruisers (1893)
• Linois class Cruisers (1896)
• D'Assas class Cruisers (1896)
• Catinat class Cruisers (1896)
• R. de Genouilly class Cruisers (1876)
• Cruiser Duquesne (1876)
• Cruiser Tourville (1876)
• Cruiser Duguay-Trouin (1877)
• Laperouse class Cruisers (1877)
• Villars class Cruisers (1879)
• Cruiser Iphigenie (1881)
• Cruiser Naiade (1881)
• Cruiser Arethuse (1882)
• Cruiser Dubourdieu (1884)
• Cruiser Milan (1884)
• Parseval class sloops (1876)
• Bisson class sloops (1874)
• Epee class gunboats (1873)
• Crocodile class gunboats (1874)
• Tromblon class gunboats (1875)
• Condor class Torpedo Cruisers (1885)
• G. Charmes class gunboats (1886)
• Inconstant class sloops (1887)
• Bombe class Torpedo Cruisers (1887)
• Wattignies class Torpedo Cruisers (1891)
• Levrier class Torpedo Cruisers (1891)

• Siete de Setembro class (1874)
• Riachuleo class (1883)

• ☍ See the Page
• Coastal Battleship Vasco da Gama (1875)
• Portuguese Torpedo Boats
• Portuguese Gunboats

• GB Indipendencia (1874)
• GB Democrata (1875)
• Cruiser Heibtnuma (1890)
• Cruiser Lufti Humayun (1892)
• Cruiser Hadevendighar (1892)
• Shadieh class cruisers (1893)
• Turkish TBs (1885-94)

• Pr. Amadeo class (1871)
• Caio Duilio class (1879)
• Italia class (1885)
• Ruggero di Lauria class (1884)
• Carracciolo (1869)
• Vettor Pisani (1869)
• Cristoforo Colombo (1875)
• Flavio Goia (1881)
• Amerigo Vespucci (1882)
• C. Colombo (ii) (1892)
• Pietro Micca (1876)
• Tripoli (1886)
• Goito class (1887)
• Folgore class (1887)
• Partenope class (1889)
• Giovanni Bausan (1883)
• Etna class (1885)
• Dogali (1885)
• Piemonte (1888)
• Staffeta (1876)
• Rapido (1876)
• Barbarigo class (1879)
• Messagero (1885)
• Archimede class (1887)
• Guardiano class GB (1874)
• Scilla class GB (1874)
• Provana class GB (1884)
• Curtatone class GB (1887)
• Castore class GB (1888)

• Ironclad Fuso (1877)
• Kongo class Ironclads (1877)
• Cruiser Tsukushi (1880)
• Cruiser Takao (1888)
• Cruiser Yaeyama (1889)
• Cruiser Chishima (1890)
• Cruiser Tatsuta (1894)
• Cruiser Miyako (1898)
• Frigate Nisshin (1869)
• Frigate Tsukuba (acq.1870)
• Kaimon class CVT (1882)
• Katsuragi class SCVT (1885)
• Sloop Seiki (1875)
• Sloop Amagi (1877)
• Corvette Jingei (1876)
• Gunboat Banjo (1878)
• Maya class GB (1886)
• Gunboat Oshima (1891)

• Ironclad Hansa (1872)
• G.Kurfürst class (1873)
• Kaiser class (1874)
• Sachsen class (1877)
• Ironclad Oldenburg (1884)
• Ariadne class CVT (1871)
• Leipzig class CVT (1875)
• Bismarck class CVT (1877)
• Carola class CVT (1880)
• Corvette Nixe (1885)
• Corvette Charlotte (1885)
• Schwalbe class Cruisers (1887)
• Bussard class (1890)
• Aviso Zieten (1876)
• Blitz class Avisos (1882)
• Aviso Greif (1886)
• Wacht class Avisos (1887)
• Meteor class Avisos (1890)
• Albatross class GBT (1871)
• Cyclop GBT (1874)
• Otter GBT (1877)
• Wolf class GBT (1878)
• Habitch class GBT (1879)
• Hay GBT (1881)
• Eber GBT (1881)
• Rhein class Monitors (1872)
• Wespe class Monitors (1876)
• Brummer class Arm.Steamers (1884)

• Petr Velikiy (1872)
• Ekaterina class ICL (1886)
• Imperator Alexander class ICL (1887)
• Ironclad Gangut (1890)
• Admiral Ushakov class (1893)
• Navarin (1893)
• Petropavlovsk class (1894)
• Sissoi Veliky (1896)
• Minin (1866)
• G.Admiral class (1875)
• Pamiat Merkuria (1879)
• V.Monomakh (1882)
• D.Donskoi (1883)
• Adm.Nakhimov (1883)
• Vitiaz class (1884)
• Pamiat Azova (1886)
• Adm.Kornilov (1887)
• Rurik (1895)
• Svetlana (1896)
• Gunboat Ersh (1874)
• Kreiser class sloops (1875)
• Gunboat Nerpa (1877)
• Burun class Gunboats (1879)
• Sivuch class Gunboats (1884)
• Korietz class Gunboats (1886)
• Kubanetz class Gunboats (1887)
• TGBT Lt.Ilin (1886)
• TGBT Kp.Saken (1889)
• Kazarski class TGBT (1889)
• Grozyaschi class AGBT (1890)
• Gunboat Khrabri (1895)
• T.Gunboat Abrek (1896)
• Amur class minelayers (1898)
• Lima class Cruisers (1880)
• Chilean TBs (1879)

• Monitor Loke (1871)
• Svea class Coast Defence Ships (1886)
• Berserk class (1873)
• Sloop Balder (1870)
• Blenda class GB (1874)
• Urd class GB (1877)
• Gunboat Edda (1885)

• Gorm (1870)
• Odin (1872)
• Helgoland (1878)

• Hotspur (1870)
• Glatton (1871)
• Devastation class (1871)
• Cyclops class (1871)
• Rupert (1874)
• Neptune class (1874)
• Dreadnought (1875)
• Inflexible (1876)
• Agamemnon class (1879)
• Conqueror class (1881)
• Colossus class (1882)
• Admiral class (1882)
• Trafalgar class (1887)
• Victoria class (1890)
• Royal Sovereign class (1891)
• Centurion class (1892)
• Renown (1895)
• HMS Shannon (1875)
• Nelson class (1876)
• Iris class (1877)
• Leander class (1882)
• Imperieuse class (1883)
• Mersey class (1885)
• Surprise class (1885)
• Scout class (1885)
• Archer class (1885)
• Orlando class (1886)
• Medea class (1888)
• Barracouta class (1889)
• Barham class (1889)
• Pearl class (1889)
• 1870-90 Torpedo Boats

• Ironclad Pelayo (1887)
• Aragon class (1879)
• Velasco class (1881)
• Isla de Luzon (1886)
• Alfonso XII class (1887)
• Reina Regentes class (1887)
• Infanta Maria Teresa class (1890)
• Emperador Carlos V (1895)
• Cristobal Colon (1896)
• Princesa de Asturias class (1896)
• Destructor class (1886)
• Temerario class (1891)
• TGunboat Filipinas (1892)
• De Molina class (1896)
• Furor class (1896)
• Audaz class (1897)
• Spanish TBs (1878-87)
• Fernando class gunboats (1875)
• Concha class gunboats (1883)

• USS Maine (1889)
• USS Texas (1892)
• Indiana class (1893)
• USS Iowa (1896)
• Amphitrite class (1876)
• USS Puritan (1882)
• USS Monterey (1891)
• Atlanta class (1884)
• USS Chicago (1885)
• USS Charleston (1888)
• USS Baltimore (1888)
• USS Philadelphia (1889)
• USS San Francisco (1889)
• USS Newark (1890)
• USS New York (1891)
• USS Olympia (1892)
• Cincinatti class (1892)
• Montgomery class (1893)
• Columbia class (1893)
• USS Brooklyn (1895)
• USS Vesuvius (1888)
• USS Katahdin (1893)
• USN Torpedo Boats (1886-1901)
• GB USS Dolphin (1884)
• Yorktown class GB (1888)
• GB USS Petrel (1888)
• GB USS Bancroft (1892)
• Machias class GB (1891)
• GB USS Nashville (1895)
• Wilmington class GB (1895)
• Annapolis class GB (1896)
• Wheeling class GB (1897)
• Small gunboats (1886-95)
• St Louis class AMC (1894)
• Harvard class AMC (1888)
• USN Armoured Merchant Cruisers
• USN Armed Yachts

☉ Entente Fleets

• WW1 American Battleships
• USS Texas (1891)
• Indiana class battleships (1898)
• Kearsage class battleships (1898)
• Illinois class (1898)
• Maine class (1901)
• Virginia class (1904)
• Connecticut class (1905)
• Mississippi class (1906)
• South Carolina class battleships (1908)
• Delaware class battleships (1909)
• Florida class battleships (1910)
• Arkansas class battleships (1911)
• New York class Battleships (1912)
• Nevada class Battleships (1914)
• Pennsylvania class (1915)
• New Mexico class battleships (1917)
• Tennessee class battleships (1919)
• Colorado class battleships (1920)
• South Dakota class battleships (1920)
• WW1 US Cruisers
• Atlanta class (1885)
• USS Charleston (1887)
• Baltimore class (1888)
• Montgomery class (1891)
• New Orleans class (1896)
• USS Maine (1896)
• Denver class (1902)
• Pittsburg (Pennslvania) class (1903)
• St Louis class (1904)
• Memphis (Tennessee) class (1904)
• Chester class (1907)
• Omaha class (1920)
• WW1 USN Destroyers
• Bainbridge Class
• Truxtun Class
• Smith Class
• Paulding Class
• Cassin Class
• O'brien Class
• Tucker Class
• Sampson Class
• Caldwell Class
• Wickes Class
• Clemson Class
• WW1 American Submarines
• USS Holland 1897
• A class subs 1901
• B class subs 1906
• C class subs 1907
• D class subs 1909
• E class subs 1911
• F class subs 1911
• G class subs 1911
• H class subs 1913
• K class subs 1914
• L class subs 1915
• M class subs 1915
• N class subs 1916
• O class subs 1917
• R class subs 1917
• S class subs 1918
• T(AA) class subs 1918
• American Torpedo Boats (1885-1901)
• WW1 USN Gunboats
• WW1 USN Monitors
• WW1 USN Armed Merchant cruisers
• WW1 USN armed Yachts
• Eagle Boats (1918)
• SC 110 ft (1917)
• Shawmut class minelayers (1907)
• Bird class minesweepers (1917)

• WW1 British Battleships
• Majestic class (1894)
• Canopus class (1897)
• Formidable class (1898)
• London class (1899)
• Duncan class (1901)
• King Edward VII class (1903)
• Swiftsure class (1903)
• Lord Nelson class (1906)
• HMS Dreadnought (1906)
• Bellorophon class (1907)
• St Vincent class (1908)
• HMS Neptune (1909)
• Colossus class (1910)
• Orion class (1911)
• King George V class (1911)
• Iron Duke class (1912)
• Queen Elizabeth class (1913)
• HMS Canada (1913)
• HMS Agincourt (1913)
• HMS Erin (1915)
• Revenge class (1915)
• N3 class (1920)
• WW1 British Battlecruisers
• Invincible class (1907)
• Indefatigable class (1909)
• Lion class (1910)
• HMS Tiger (1913)
• Renown class (1916)
• Courageous class (1916)
• G3 class (1918)
• ww1 British cruisers
• Blake class (1889)
• Edgar class (1890)
• Powerful class (1895)
• Diadem class (1896)
• Cressy class (1900)
• Drake class (1901)
• Monmouth class (1901)
• Devonshire class (1903)
• Duke of Edinburgh class (1904)
• Warrior class (1905)
• Minotaur class (1906)
• Hawkins class (1917)
• Apollo class (1890)
• Astraea class (1893)
• Eclipse class (1894)
• Arrogant class (1896)
• Pelorus class (1896)
• Highflyer class (1898)
• Gem class (1903)
• Adventure class (1904)
• Forward class (1904)
• Pathfinder class (1904)
• Sentinel class (1904)
• Boadicea class (1908)
• Blonde class (1910)
• Active class (1911)
• 'Town' class (1909-1913)
• Arethusa class (1913)
• 'C' class series (1914-1922)
• 'D' class (1918)
• 'E' class (1918)
• WW1 British Seaplane Carriers
• HMS Ark Royal (1914)
• HMS Campania (1893)
• HMS Argus (1917)
• HMS Furious (1917)
• HMS Vindictive (1918)
• HMS Hermes (1919)
• WW1 British Destroyers
• 26-knotters (1893)
• 27-knotters (1894)
• 30-knotters (1895-99)
• 33-knotters (1896-1901)
• HM Turbinia (1897)
• HMS Viper (1897)
• HMS Cobra (1899)
• HMS Velox (1899)
• River class (1903)
• Tribal class (1907)
• Cricket class (1906)
• HMS Swift (1907)
• Albacore class (1906)
• Beagle class (1909)
• Acorn class (1910)
• Acheron class (1911)
• Acasta class (1912)
• Laforey class (1913)
• M/repeat M class (1914)
• Faulknor class FL (1914)
• Lightfoote class FL (1914)
• Medea class (1914)
• Talisman class (1915)
• Parker claqs FL (1916)
• R/Mod R class (1916)
• V class FL (1917)
• Skakespeare class FL (1917)
• Scott class FL (1917)
• V class (1917)
• W/Mod W class (1917)
• S class (1918)
• WW1 British Torpedo Boats
• 125ft series (1885)
• 140ft series (1892)
• 160ft series (1901)
• WW1 British Submarines
• Nordenfelt Submarines (1885)
• Holland Type (1901)
• A-Class Type (1902)
• B-Class Type (1904)
• C-Class Type (1906)
• D-Class Type (1908)
• E-Class Type (1912)
• S-Class Type (1914)
• V-Class Type (1914)
• W-Class Type (1914)
• F-Class Type (1915)
• H-class Type (1914)
• HMS Nautilus (1914)
• HMS Swordfish (1916)
• G-Class Type (1915)
• J-Class Type (1915)
• K-Class Type (1916)
• L-Class Type (1917)
• M-Class Type (1917)
• R-Class Type (1918)
• WW1 British Monitors
• Flower class sloops
• British Gunboats of WWI
• British P-Boats (1915)
• Kil class (1917)
• British ww1 Minesweepers
• Z-Whaler class patrol crafts
• British ww1 CMB
• British ww1 Auxiliaries

• WW1 French Battlecruisers (Projects)
• WW1 French Battleships
• Charles Martel class (1891)
• Charlemagne class (1899)
• Henri IV (1899)
• Iéna (1898)
• Suffren (1899)
• République class (1902)
• Liberté class (1904)
• Danton class Battleships (1909)
• Courbet class (1911)
• Bretagne class (1914)
• Normandie class battleships (1914)
• Lyon class battleships (planned)
• WW1 French Cruisers
• Dupuy de Lôme (1890)
• Admiral Charner class (1892)
• Pothuau (1895)
• Dunois class (1897)
• Jeanne d'Arc arm. cruiser (1899)
• Gueydon class arm. cruisers (1901)
• Dupleix class arm. cruisers (1901)
• Gloire class arm. cruisers (1902)
• Gambetta class arm. cruisers (1901)
• Jules Michelet arm. cruiser (1905)
• Ernest Renan arm. cruiser (1905)
• Lamotte Picquet class cruisers (planned)
• Cruiser D'Entrecasteaux (1897)
• D’Iberville class (1893)
• Jurien de la Gravière (1899)
• Seaplane Carrier La Foudre (1895)
• Kersaint class sloops (1897)
• WW1 French Destroyers
• WW1 French ASW Escorts
• WW1 French Submarines
• Plongeur (1863)
• Gymnôte (1888)
• Gustave Zédé (1893)
• Morse (1899)
• Narval (1899)
• Sirène class (1901)
• Farfadet class (1901)
• Morse class (1901)
• Naiade class (1904)
• Aigrette class (1904)
• Omega (1905)
• Emeraude class (1906)
• Circe class (1907)
• Pluviose class (1909)
• Brumaire class (1910)
• Archimede (1909)
• Mariotte (1911)
• Amiral Bourgeois (1912)
• Charles Brun (1910)
• Clorinde class (1913)
• Zédé class (1913)
• Amphitrite class (1914)
• Bellone class (1914)
• Dupuy de Lome class (1915)
• Diane class (1915)
• Joessel class (1917)
• Lagrange class (1917)
• Armide class (1915)
• O'Byrne class (1919)
• Maurice Callot (1921)
• Pierre Chailley (1921)
• WW1 French Torpedo Boats
• WW1 French river gunboats
• WW1 French Motor Boats
• WW1 French Auxiliary Warships

• WW1 Japanese Battleships
• Ironclad Chin Yen (1882)
• Fuji class (1896)
• Shikishima class (1898)
• IJN Mikasa (1900)
• Katori class (1905)
• Satsuma class (1906)
• Kawachi class (1910)
• Fusō class (1915)
• Ise class (1917)
• Nagato class (1919)
• Kaga class (1921)
• Kii class (planned)
• Tsukuba class BCs (1905)
• Ibuki class (1907)
• Kongō class (1912)
• Akagi class (planned)
• N°13 class (planned)
• WW1 Japanese Cruisers
• Naniwa class (1885)
• IJN Unebi (1886)
• Matsushima class (1889)
• IJN Akitsushima (1892)
• Suma class (1895)
• Chitose class (1898)
• Asama class (1898)
• IJN Yakumo (1899)
• IJN Adzuma (1899)
• Tsushima class (1902)
• IJN Otowa (1903)
• Kasuga class (1904)
• IJN Tone (1907)
• Yodo class (1907)
• Chikuma class (1911)
• Tenryu class (1918)
• WW1 Japanese Destroyers
• WW1 Japanese Submersibles
• WW1 Japanese Torpedo Boats
• WW1 Japanese gunboats
• IJN Wakamiya seaplane carrier (1905)
• Natsushima class minelayers (1911)
• IJN Katsuriki minelayer (1916)
• Japanese WW1 auxiliaries

• WW1 Russian Battleships
• Tri Sviatitelia (1894)
• Poltava (1894)
• Rostislav (1896)
• Peresviet class (1899)
• Pantelimon (1900)
• Retvizan (1900)
• Tsesarevich (1901)
• Borodino class (1901)
• Pervoswanny class (1908)
• Evstafi class (1910)
• Gangut class (1911)
• Imperatritsa Mariya class (1913)
• Borodino class battlecruisers (1915)
• WW1 Russian Cruisers
• Rossia class (1896)
• Pallada class (1899)
• Varyag (1900)
• Askold (1900)
• Novik (1900)
• Bogatyr class (1901)
• Boyarin (1901)
• Izmurud (1903)
• Bayan class (1905)
• Rurik (1906)
• Svetlana class (1915)
• Adm. Nakhimov class (1915)
• WW1 Russian Destroyers
• Pruitki class (1895)
• Bditelni(i) class (1899)
• Grozni class (1904)
• Ukraina class (1904)
• Bukharski class (1905)
• Gaidamak class (1905)
• Lovki class (1905)
• Bditelni class (1905)
• Tverdi class (1906)
• Storozhevoi class (1906)
• Kondratenko class (1906)
• Shestakov class (1907)
• Novik (1911)
• Bespokoiny(Derzki) class (1911)
• Orfey class (1911)
• Izyaslav class (1911)
• Fidonisy(Kerch) class (1911)
• WW1 Russian Submarines
• WW1 Russian TBs (1877-1918)
• WW1 Russian Minelayers
• WW1 Russian Minesweepers
• Amur class Minelayers (1906)

• WW1 Italian Battleships
• Re Umberto class (1883)
• Amiraglio Di St Bon class (1897)
• Regina Margherita class (1900)
• Regina Elena class (1904)
• Dante Alighieri (1909)
• Cavour class (1915)
• Doria class (1916)
• Caracciolo class battleships (1917)
• WW1 Italian Cruisers
• Umbria class (1891)
• Calabria (1894)
• Vettor Pisani class (1895)
• Agordat class (1899)
• Garibaldi class (1901)
• Marco Polo (1892)
• Nino Bixio class ()
• Pisa class (1907)
• San Giorgio class (1907)
• Quarto (1911)
• Libia (1912)
• Campania class (1914)
• WW1 Italian Gunboats
• Governolo GB (1897)
• Brondolo class (1909)
• Sebastiano Caboto (1912)
• Ape class (1918)
• Erlanno Caboto (1918)
• Bafile class (1921)
• Esploratori (scouts)
• Poerio class scouts
• Mirabello class scouts
• Aquila class scouts
• Leone class scouts
• WW1 Italian Destroyers
• Soldati class
• Indomito class
• Sirtori class
• La Masa class
• Palestro class
• "Generali" class
• Curtatone class
• WW1 Italian Torpedo Boats
• WW1 Italian Submarines
• WW1 Italian Monitors
• WW1 Italian Minesweepers
• WW1 Italian MAS
• Grillo class tracked torpedo launches

✠ Central Empires

• WW1 German Battleships
• Siegfried class (1889)
• Brandenburg class (1892)
• Wittelsbach class (1900)
• Braunschweig class (1902)
• Kaiser Friedrich III class (1904)
• Deutschland class (1905)
• Nassau class (1906)
• Helgoland class (1909)
• Kaiser class (1911)
• König class (1913)
• Bayern class battleships (1916)
• Sachsen class (launched)
• L20 Alpha (project)
• WW1 German Battlecruisers
• SMS Blücher (1908)
• Von der Tann (1909)
• Moltke class (1910)
• Seydlitz (1912)
• Derrflinger class (1913)
• Hindenburg (1915)
• Mackensen class (1917)
• Ersatz Yorck class (started)
• WW1 German Cruisers
• Irene class (1887)
• SMS Kaiserin Augusta (1892)
• SMS Gefion (1893)
• SMS Hela (1895)
• Victoria Louise class (1896)
• Fürst Bismarck (1897)
• Gazelle class (1898)
• Prinz Adalbert class (1901)
• Prinz heinrich (1900)
• Bremen class (1902)
• Könisgberg class (1905)
• Roon class (1905)
• Scharnhorst class (1906)
• Dresden class (1907)
• Nautilus class (1906)
• Kolberg class (1908)
• Magdeburg class (1911)
• Karlsruhe class (1912)
• Graudenz class (1914)
• Pillau class (1914)
• Brummer class (1915)
• Wiesbaden class (1915)
• Königsberg(ii) class (1915)
• Cöln class (1916)
• WW1 German Commerce Raiders
• SMS Seeadler (1888)
• WW1 German Destroyers
• WW1 German Submarines
• Brandtaucher
• U-139 class
• U-142 class
• UB-II class
• UB-III class
• UC-II class
• Deutschland
• UE-II class
• WW1 German Torpedo Boats
• ww1 German gunboats
• ww1 German minesweepers
• ww1 German MTBs
• Monarch class coastal BS (1895)
• Habsburg class
• Herzherzog Karl class
• Radetzky class (1908)
• SMS Kaiser Karl IV (1898)
• SMS Sankt Georg (1903)
• Tegetthoff class (1911)
• Kaiser Franz Joseph I class (1889)
• Kaiserin und Königin Maria Theresia
• Admiral Spaun/Novara
• Panther class (1885)
• Zara class (1880)
• Austro-Hungarian Destroyers
• Tatra class Destroyers
• Austro-Hungarian Submarines
• Austro-Hungarian Torpedo Boats
• Versuchsgleitboot
• Barbarossa class battleships (1892)
• Yavuz (1914)
• Cruiser Mecidieh (1903)
• Cruiser Hamidieh (1903)
• Cruiser Midilli (1914)
• Namet Torpedo cruisers (1890)
• Sahahani Deria Torpedo cruisers (1892)
• Destroyers class Berk-Efshan (1894)
• Destroyers class Yarishar (1907)
• Destroyers class Muavenet (1909)
• Berk i Savket class Torpedo gunboats (1906)
• Marmaris gunboat (1903)
• Sedd ul Bahr class gunboats (1907)
• Isa Reis class gunboats (1911)
• Preveze class gunboats (1912)
• Turkish WW1 Torpedo Boats
• Turkish Armed Yachts (1861-1903)
• Turkish WW1 Minelayers

⚑ Neutral Countries

• Alm. Brown Corvette (1880)
• Cruiser Patagonia (1885)
• Libertad class CBC (1890)
• Cruiser 25 de Mayo (1890)
• Cruiser Nueve de Julio (1892)
• Cruiser Buenos Aires (1895)
• Garibaldi class cruisers (1895)
• Espora class TGB (1890)
• Patria class TGB (1893)
• Argentinian TBs (1880-98)
• Marsh. Deodoro class (1898)
• Riachuelo (1883)
• Minas Geraes class (1908)
• Cruiser Alm. Tamandaré (1890)
• Cruiser Republica (1892)
• Cruiser Alm. Barrozo (1892)
• TT Gunboat Talayo (1892)
• Brazilian TBs (1879-1893)
• BS Alm. Latorre (1913)
• BS Capitan Prat (1890)
• Pdt. Errazuriz class (1890)
• Blanco Encalada (1893)
• Esmeralda (1894)
• Ministro Zenteno (1896)
• O'Higgins (1897)
• Chacabuco (1898)
• TGB Almirante Lynch (1890)
• TGB Alm. Sampson (1896)
• Chilean TBs (1880-1902)
• Gunboat Baire (1906)
• Gunboat Patria (1911)
• Diez de octubre class GB (1911)
• Sloop Cuba (1911)
• GB Toussaint Louverture (1886)
• GB Capois la Mort (1893)
• GB Crete a Pierot (1895)

• Cruiser Zatagosa (1891)
• GB Plan de Guadalupe (1892)
• Tampico class GB (1902)
• N. Bravo class GB (1903)

• Almirante Grau class (1906)
• Ferre class subs. (1912)
• Cruiser Nadezhda (1898)
• Drski class TBs (1906)
• Skjold class (1896)
• Herluf Trolle class (1899)
• Herluf Trolle (1908)
• Niels Iuel (1918)
• Hekla class cruisers (1890)
• Valkyrien class cruisers (1888)
• Fyen class crusiers (1882)
• Danish TBs (1879-1918)
• Danish Submarines (1909-1920)
• Danish Minelayer/sweepers
• Kilkis class
• Giorgios Averof class
• Eversten class (1894)
• Konigin Regentes class (1900)
• De Zeven Provincien (1909)
• Dutch dreadnought (project)
• Holland class cruisers (1896)
• Fret class destroyers
• Dutch Torpedo boats
• Dutch gunboats
• Dutch submarines
• Dutch minelayers
• Haarfarge class (1897)
• Norge class (1900)
• Norwegian Monitors
• Cr. Frithjof (1895)
• Cr. Viking (1891)
• DD Draug (1908)
• Norwegian ww1 TBs
• Norwegian ww1 Gunboats
• Sub. Kobben (1909)
• Ml. Fröya (1916)
• Ml. Glommen (1917)

• Cruiser Adamastor (1896)
• Sao Gabriel class (1898)
• Cruiser Dom Carlos I (1898)
• Cruiser Rainha Dona Amelia (1899)
• Portuguese ww1 Destroyers
• Portuguese ww1 Submersibles
• Portuguese ww1 Gunboats
• Elisabeta (1885)

• España class Battleships (1912)
• Velasco class (1885)
• Cataluna class (1896)
• Plata class (1898)
• Estramadura class (1900)
• Reina Regentes class (1906)
• Spanish Destroyers
• Spanish Torpedo Boats
• Spanish Sloops/Gunboats
• Spanish Submarines
• Spanish Armada 1898
• Svea classs (1886)
• Oden class (1896)
• Dristigheten (1900)
• Äran class (1901)
• Oscar II (1905)
• Sverige class (1915)
• J. Ericsson class (1865)
• Gerda class (1871)
• Berserk (1873)
• HMS Fylgia (1905)
• Clas Fleming class (1912)
• Swedish Torpedo cruisers
• Swedish destroyers
• Swedish Torpedo Boats
• Swedish gunboats
• Swedish submarines
• Dingyuan class Ironclads (1881)
• Hai Ching class (1874)
• Wei Yuan class (1878)
• Chao Yung class (1880)
• Nan T'an class (1883)
• Pao Min (1885)
• King Ching class (1885)
• Tung Chi class (1895)
• Hai Yung class (1897)
• Hai Tien class (1898)
• Chao Ho class (1911)
• Gunboats (1867-1918)
• Fu Po class Gunboats (1870)
• Torpedo gunboats (1891-1900)
• Destroyers (1906-1912)
• Torpedo boats (1883-1902)
• Maha Chakri (1892)
• Thoon Kramon (1866)
• Makrut Rajakumarn (1883)

⚏ WW1 3rd/4th rank navies

✈ ww1 naval aviation.

• Boeing model 2/3/5 (1916)
• Aeromarine 39 (1917)
• Curtiss H (1917)
• Curtiss F5L (1918)
• Curtiss VE-7 (1918)
• Curtiss NC (1918)
• Curtiss NC4 (1918)
• Short 184 (1915)
• Fairey Campania (1917)
• Felixtowe F2 (1916)
• Felixtowe F3 (1917)
• Felixtowe F5 (1918)
• Sopwith Baby (1917)
• Fairey Hamble Baby (1917)
• Fairey III (1918)
• Short S38 (1912)
• Short Admiralty Type 166 (1914)
• Short Admiralty Type 184 (1915)
• Blackburn Kangaroo
• Sopwith 1-1/2 Strutter
• Sopwith Pup
• Sopwith Cuckoo 1918
• Royal Aircraft Factory Airships
• Albatros W.4 (1916)
• Albatros W.8 (1918)
• Friedrichshafen Models
• Gotha WD.1-27 (1918)
• Hansa-Brandenburg series
• L.F.G V.19 Stralsund (1918)
• L.F.G W (1916)
• L.F.G WD (1917)
• Lübeck-Travemünde (1914)
• Oertz W series (1914)
• Rumpler 4B (1914)
• Sablatnig SF (1916)
• Zeppelin-Lindau Rs series
• Kaiserlichesmarine Zeppelins
• Borel Type Bo.11 (1911)
• Nieuport VI.H (1912)
• Nieuport X.H (1913)
• Donnet-Leveque (1913)
• FBA-Leveque (1913)
• Donnet-Denhaut (1915)
• Borel-Odier Type Bo-T(1916)
• Levy G.L.40 (1917)
• Blériot-SPAD S.XIV (1917)
• Hanriot HD.2 (1918)
• Zodiac Airships
• Ansaldo SVA Idro (1916)
• Ansaldo Baby Idro (1915)
• Macchi M3 (1916)
• Macchi M5 (1918)
• SIAI S.12 (1918)
• Grigorovich M-5 (1915)
• Grigorovich M-9 (1916)
• Grigorovich M-11 (1916)
• Grigorovich M-15 (1916)
• Grigorovich M-16 (1916)
• Lohner E (1914)
• Lohner L (1915)
• Oeffag G (1916)
• IJN Farman 1914
• Yokosho Rogou Kougata (1917)
• Yokosuka Igo-Ko (1920)

✪ Allied ww2 Fleets

• WW2 US Battleships
• Wyoming class (1911)
• New York class (1912)
• Nevada class (1914)
• New Mexico class (1917)
• Tennessee Class (1919)
• Colorado class (1921)
• North Carolina class (1940)
• South Dakota class (1941)
• Iowa class (1942)
• Montana class (cancelled)
• WW2 American Cruisers
• Omaha class cruisers (1920)
• Pensacola class heavy Cruisers (1928)
• Northampton class heavy cruisers (1929)
• Portland class heavy cruisers (1931)
• New Orleans class cruisers (1933)
• Brooklyn class cruisers (1936)
• USS Wichita (1937)
• Atlanta class light cruisers (1941)
• Cleveland class light Cruisers (1942)
• Baltimore class heavy cruisers (1942)
• Alaska class heavy cruisers (1944)
• WW2 USN Aircraft Carriers
• USS Langley (1920)
• Lexington class CVs (1927)
• USS Ranger (CV-4)
• USS Wasp (CV-7)
• Yorktown class aircraft carriers (1936)
• Long Island class (1940)
• Independence class CVs (1942)
• Essex class CVs (1942)
• Bogue class CVEs (1942)
• Sangamon class CVEs (1942)
• Casablanca class CVEs (1942)
• Commencement Bay class CVEs (1944)
• Midway class CVs (1945)
• Saipan class CVs (1945)
• WW2 USN destroyers
• Farragut class (1934)
• Porter class (1935)
• Mahan class (1935)
• Gridley class (1936)
• Bagley class (1936)
• Somers class (1937)
• Benham class (1938)
• Sims class (1939)
• Benson class (1939)
• Gleaves class (1940)
• Fletcher class (1942)
• Sumner class (1943)
• Gearing class (1944)
• GMT Evarts class (1942)
• TE Buckley class (1943)
• TEV/WGT Rudderow class (1943)
• DET/FMR Cannon class
• Asheville/Tacoma class
• WW2 US Submarines
• Barracuda class
• USS Argonaut
• Narwhal class
• USS Dolphin
• Cachalot class
• Porpoise class
• Shark class
• Perch class
• Salmon class
• Sargo class
• Tambor class
• Mackerel class
• USS Terror (1941)
• Raven class Mnsp (1940)
• Admirable class Mnsp (1942)
• Eagle class sub chasers (1918)
• PC class sub chasers
• SC class sub chasers
• PCS class sub chasers
• YMS class Mot. Mnsp
• ww2 US gunboats
• ww2 US seaplane tenders
• USS Curtiss ST (1940)
• Currituck class ST
• Tangier class ST
• Barnegat class ST
• US Coast Guard
• Northland class
• Treasury class
• Owasco class
• Algonquin class
• Thetis class
• Active class
• US Amphibious ships & crafts
• US Amphibious Operations
• Doyen class AT
• Harris class AT
• Dickman class AT
• Bayfield class AT
• Windsor class AT
• Ormsby class AT
• Funston class AT
• Sumter class AT
• Haskell class AT
• Andromeda class AT
• Gilliam class AT
• APD-1 class LT
• APD-37 class LT
• LSV class LS
• LSD class LS
• Landing Ship Tank
• LSM class LS
• LSM(R) class SS
• LCV class LC
• LCVP class LC
• LCM(3) class LC
• LCP(L) class LC
• LCP(R) class SC
• LCL(L)(3) class FSC
• LCS(S) class FSC

• WW2 British Battleships
• Queen Elisabeth class (1913)
• Nelson class (1925)
• King George V class (1939)
• Lion class (Started)
• HMS Vanguard (1944)
• HMS Hood (1920)
• WW2 British Cruisers
• British C class cruisers (1914-1922)
• Hawkins class cruisers (1917)
• British D class cruisers (1918)
• Enterprise class cruisers (1919)
• HMS Adventure (1924)
• County class cruisers (1926)
• York class cruisers (1929)
• Surrey class cruisers (project)
• Leander class cruisers (1931)
• Arethusa class cruisers (1934)
• Perth class cruisers (1934)
• Town class cruisers (1936)
• Dido class cruisers (1939)
• Abdiel class cruisers (1939)
• Fiji class cruisers (1941)
• Bellona class cruisers (1942)
• Swiftsure class cruisers (1943)
• Tiger class cruisers (1944)
• WW2 British Aircraft Carriers
• HMS Eagle (1918)
• Courageous class aircraft carriers (1928)
• HMS Ark Royal (1937)
• Illustrious class (1939)
• HMS Indomitable (1940)
• Implacable class (1942)
• Malta class (project)
• HMS Unicorn (1941)
• Colossus class (1943)
• Majestic class (1944)
• Centaur class (started 1945)
• HMS Archer (1939)
• HMS Audacity (1941)
• HMS Archer (1941)
• HMS Activity (1941)
• HMS Pretoria Castle (1941)
• Avenger class (1941)
• Attacker class (1941)
• Ameer class (1942)
• Merchant Aircraft Carriers (1942)
• Nairana class (1943)
• WW2 British Destroyers
• Shakespeare class (1917)
• Scott class (1818)
• W class (1918)
• A/B class (1926)
• C/D class (1931)
• G/H/I class (1935)
• Tribal class (1937)
• J/K/N class (1938)
• Hunt class DE (1939)
• L/M class (1940)
• O/P class (1942)
• Q/R class (1942)
• S/T/U//V/W class (1942)
• Z/ca class (1943)
• Ch/Co/Cr class (1944)
• Battle class (1945)
• Weapon class (1945)
• WW2 British submarines
• L9 class (1918)
• HMS X1 (1923)
• Odin (O) class (1926)
• Parthian (P) class (1929)
• Rainbow (R) class (1930)
• River (Thames) class (1932)
• Swordfish (S) class (1932)
• Grampus class (1935)
• Shark class (1934)
• Triton class (1937)
• Undine class (1937)
• U class (1940)
• S class (1941)
• T class (1941)
• X-Craft midget (1942)
• A class (1944)
• WW2 British Amphibious Ships and Landing Crafts
• LSI(L) class
• LSI(M/S) class
• LSI(H) class
• Boxer class LST
• LST(2) class
• LST(3) class
• LSH(L) class
• LSF classes (all)
• LCI(S) class
• LCI(L) class
• LCS(L2) class
• LCT(I) class
• LCT(2) class
• LCT(R) class
• LCT(3) class
• LCT(4) class
• LCT(8) class
• LCG(L)(4) class
• LCG(M)(1) class
• WW2 British MTB/gunboats
• WW2 British MTBs
• MTB-1 class (1936)
• MTB-24 class (1939)
• MTB-41 class (1940)
• MTB-424 class (1944)
• MTB-601 class (1942)
• MA/SB class (1938)
• MTB-412 class (1942)
• MGB 6 class (1939)
• MGB-47 class (1940)
• MGB 321 (1941)
• MGB 501 class (1942)
• MGB 511 class (1944)
• MGB 601 class (1942)
• MGB 2001 class (1943)
• WW2 British Gunboats
• Denny class (1941)
• Fairmile A (1940)
• Fairmile B (1940)
• HDML class (1940)
• WW2 British Sloops
• Bridgewater class (2090)
• Hastings class (1930)
• Shoreham class (1930)
• Grimsby class (1934)
• Bittern class (1937)
• Egret class (1938)
• Black Swan class (1939)
• River class (1942)
• Loch class (1944)
• Bay class (1944)
• Kingfisher class (1935)
• Shearwater class (1939)
• Flower class (1940)
• Castle class (1943)
• WW2 British Misc.
• Roberts class monitors (1941)
• Halcyon class minesweepers (1933)
• Bangor class minesweepers (1940)
• Bathurst class minesweepers (1940)
• Algerine class minesweepers (1941)
• Motor Minesweepers (1937)
• ww2 British ASW trawlers
• Basset class trawlers (1935)
• Tree class trawlers (1939)
• HMS Albatross seaplane carrier
• WW2 British river gunboats
• HMS Guardian netlayer
• HMS Protector netlayer
• HMS Plover coastal mines.
• Medway class sub depot ships
• HMS Resource fleet repair
• HMS Woolwhich DD depot ship
• HMS Tyne DD depot ship
• Maidstone class sub depot ships
• HmS Adamant sub depot ship
• Athene class aircraft transport
• British ww2 AMCs
• British ww2 OBVs
• British ww2 ABVs
• British ww2 Convoy Escorts
• British ww2 APVs
• British ww2 SSVs
• British ww2 SGAVs
• British ww2 Auxiliary Mines.
• British ww2 CAAAVs
• British ww2 Paddle Mines.
• British ww2 MDVs
• British ww2 Auxiliary Minelayers
• British ww2 armed yachts

• WW2 French Battleships
• Dunkerque class (1935)
• Richelieu class (1940)
• Gascoigne class (Project)
• WW2 French cruisers
• Duguay Trouin class (1923)
• Duquesne class (1925)
• Suffren class (1927)
• Pluton (1929)
• Jeanne d’Arc (1930)
• Algérie (1930)
• Emile Bertin (1933)
• La Galissonnière class (1934)
• De Grasse class (started)
• St Louis class (started)
• WW2 French Destroyers
• Chacal class
• Guepard class
• Aigle class
• Vauquelin class
• Le Fantasque class
• Mogador class
• Bourrasque class
• L'Adroit class
• Le Hardi class
• La Melpomene class TBs
• Le fier class TBs
• WW2 French Submarines
• Requin class
• 600/630 Tonnes class
• Redoutable class
• Saphir class (1928)
• Surcouf (1929)
• Aurore class (1939)
• Morillot class (1940)
• Emeraude class (project)
• Phenix class (project)
• Aircraft Carrier Béarn (1923)
• Ct Teste seaplane carrier (1929)
• Joffre class CVs (started)
• French ASW sloops
• Bougainville class Avisos
• Elan class Minesweepers
• Chamois class Minesweepers
• French ww2 sub-chasers
• Sans souci class seaplane tenders
• ww2 French river gunboats
• ww2 French AMCs

• Sovetsky Soyuz class (started)
• Kronstadt class battlecruisers
• Krasny Kavkaz (1916)
• Svetlana class cruisers (1920)
• Kirov class cruisers (1934)
• Chapayev class cruisers (1940)
• WW2 Soviet Destroyers
• Sverdlov (Novik 1911)
• Leningrad class (1933)
• Tashkent (1937)
• Kiev class (1940)
• Gnevnyi class (1936)
• Storozhevoi class (1936)
• Opytinyi (1935)
• Ognevoi class (1940)
• WW2 Soviet submarines
• AG class (1920)
• Series I (1928)
• Series II (1931)
• Series III (1930)
• Series IV (1934)
• Series V/V bis (1933)
• Series VI/VI bis (1933)
• Series IX/IX bis (1935)
• Series X/X bis (1936)
• Series XI (1935)
• Series XIII/XIII bis (1937)
• Series XV (1940)
• Series XIV (1938)
• Series XVI (1947)
• Soviet ww2 Gunboats and Monitors
• Soviet ww2 guardships
• Soviet ww2 Minesweepers
• Soviet ww2 Minelayers
• Soviet ww2 MTBs
• Soviet ww2 sub-chasers
• Yosif Stalin class icebreakers

• Royal Canadian Navy
• IROQUOIS class destroyers
• Canadian RIVER class
• Canadian LOCH class
• Canadian FLOWER class
• Improved Flower class
• Canadian armed trawlers
• Canadian MACS

• Arunta class destroyers (1940)
• HMAS Albatros (1928)
• Barcoo class frigates (1943)
• Yarra class sloops (1935)

• HNLMS De Ruyter (1935)
• Java class cruisers (1921)
• Tromp Class Cruisers (1937)
• Holland class battecruisers (project)
• Eendracht class cruisers (project)
• Dutch Submarines
• Admiralen class destroyers
• Tjerk Hiddes class destroyers
• Dutch minelayers/minesweepers
• Ning Hai class (1931)
• WW2 Chinese Gunboats

✙ Axis ww2 Fleets

• WW2 Japanese Battleships
• Kongō class Fast Battleships (1912)
• Fuso class battleships (1915)
• Ise class battleships (1917)
• Nagato class Battleships (1919)
• Yamato class Battleships (1941)
• B41 class Battleships (project)
• B64/65 Battlecruiser (1939-41)
• WW2 Japanese cruisers
• Tenryū class cruisers (1918)
• Kuma class cruisers (1919)
• Nagara class (1921)
• Sendai class Cruisers (1923)
• IJN Yūbari (1923)
• Furutaka class Cruisers (1925)
• Aoba class heavy cruisers (1926)
• Nachi class Cruisers (1927)
• Takao class cruisers (1930)
• Mogami class cruisers (1934)
• Tone class cruisers (1937)
• Katori class cruisers (1939)
• Agano class cruisers (1941)
• Oyodo (1943)
• Seaplane & Aircraft Carriers
• IJN Hōshō (1921)
• IJN Akagi (1925)
• IJN Kaga (1927)
• IJN Ryujo (1931)
• IJN Soryu (1935)
• IJN Hiryu (1937)
• Shokaku class (1940)
• Zuiho class (1937)
• Ruyho (1933)
• Hiyo class (1941)
• Chitose class (1943)
• IJN Taiho (1944)
• IJN Shinano (1944)
• Unryu class (1944)
• IJN Ibuki (1942)
• Taiyo class (1940)
• IJN Kaiyo (1938)
• IJN Shinyo (1934)
• Notoro (1920)
• Kamoi (1922)
• Chitose class (1936)
• Mizuho (1938)
• Nisshin (1939)
• IJN Aux. Seaplane tenders
• Akistushima (1941)
• Shimane Maru class (1944)
• Yamashiro Maru class (1944)
• Imperial Japanese Navy Aviation
• WW2 Japanese Destroyers
• Mutsuki class (1925)
• Fubuki class (1927)
• Akatsuki class (1932)
• Hatsuharu class (1932)
• Shiratsuyu class (1935)
• Asashio class (1936)
• Kagero class (1938)
• Yugumo class (1941)
• Akitsuki class (1941)
• IJN Shimakaze (1942)
• WW2 Japanese Submarines
• KD1 class (1921)
• Koryu class
• Kaiten class
• Kairyu class
• IJN Midget subs
• WW2 Japanese Amphibious ships/Crafts
• Shinshu Maru class (1935)
• Akistu Maru class (1941)
• Kumano Maru class (1944)
• SS class LS (1942)
• T1 class LS (1944)
• T101 class LS (1944)
• T103 class LS (1944)
• Shohatsu class LC (1941)
• Chuhatsu class LC (1942)
• Moku Daihatsu class (1942)
• Toku Daihatsu class (1944)
• WW2 Japanese minelayers
• IJN Armed Merchant Cruisers
• WW2 Japanese Escorts
• Tomozuru class (1933)
• Otori class (1935)
• Matsu class (1944)
• Tachibana class (1944)
• WW2 Japanese Sub-chasers
• WW2 Japanese MLs
• Shinyo class SB

• WW2 Italian battleships
• Littorio class battleships
• Cavour class battleships
• Doria class battleships (1916)
• WW2 Italian Cruisers
• Alberto di Giussano class
• Trento class (1927)
• Cadorna class (1931)
• Zara class Cruisers (1931)
• R. Montecuccoli class (1934)
• Duca d'Aosta class (1935)
• Duca degli Abruzzi class (1937)
• Costanzo Ciano class (1939)
• Capitani Romani class (1941)
• Giuseppe Miraglia
• Aircraft carrier Aquila
• WW2 Italian Destroyers
• Leone class destroyers
• Sella class
• Sauro class
• Turbine class
• Navigatori class
• Freccia class
• Folgore class
• Maestrale class
• Oriani class
• Cdt Medaglie d'Oro class
• WW2 Italian TBs
• Spica class
• Pegaso class
• Ciclone class
• Ariete class
• WW2 Italian Submarines
• Balilla class
• Archimede class
• Glauco class
• Marcello class
• Liuzzi class
• Marconi class
• Cagni class
• Romolo class
• Mameli class
• Pisani class
• Bandiera class
• Squalo class
• Bragadin class
• Settembrini class
• Argonauta class
• Sirena class
• Perla class
• Acciaio class
• Flutto class
• ww2 Italian light MBs
• MS class boats
• VAS class ASW boats
• MTS class (1940)
• SLC/SSB class
• Eritrea sloop (1936)
• Diana sloop (1942)
• Gabbaiano class Corvettes (1942)
• Italian minelayers
• Italian gunboats

• ww2 german battleships
• Bismarck class Battleships (1940)
• Scharnhorst class battleships (1936)
• Deutschland class Cruisers (1931)
• K class Battleships
• ww2 german cruisers
• KMS Emden (1925)
• Königsberg class cruisers (1927)
• Leipzig class cruisers (1929)
• Hipper class cruisers (1937)
• KMS Graf Zeppelin (1939)
• WW2 German submarines: U-Boats
• Seeteufel (1944)
• Type Ia U-Boats (1936)
• Type II U-Boats (1935)
• Type IX U-Boats (1936)
• Type VII U-Boats (1933)
• Type XB U-Boats (1941)
• Type XIV U-Boats (1941)
• Type XVII U-Boats (1945)
• Type XXI U-Boats (1944)
• Type XXIII U-Boats (1944)
• Prototype U-Boats (1942-45)
• German mini-subs and human torpedoes
• WW2 German Destroyers
• 1934/34A Type
• Beute Zerstörer
• Spähkreuzer (1940)
• WW2 German Torpedo Boats
• F class escorts
• ww2 German minesweepers
• S-Bootes (E-Boats)
• Other Light Boats
• Manta (paper project, 1944)
• WW2 German Amphibious Ships
• German Commerce Raiders
• Bremse minelayer
• Brummer minelayer
• Brummer(II) minelayer
• Saar U-tender
• Bauer class U-tenders
• Nordsee S-tender
• Tsingtau S-tender
• Tanga S-tender
• Lüderitz class S-tenders
• Nachtigal class tenders
• Grille staadtjacht/minelayer
• Hela tender
• Castor minelayer
• Togo AA Cd ship

⚑ Neutral Navies

• Rivadavia class Battleships
• Cruiser La Argentina
• Veinticinco de Mayo class cruisers
• Argentinian Destroyers
• Santa Fe class sub.
• Bouchard class minesweepers
• King class patrol vessels

• Minas Gerais class Battleships (1912)
• Cruiser Bahia
• Brazilian Destroyers
• Humaita class sub.
• Tupi class sub.
• Almirante Latorre class battleships
• Cruiser Esmeralda (1896)
• Cruiser Chacabuco (1911)
• Chilean DDs
• Fresia class subs
• Capitan O’Brien class subs
• Danish ww2 Torpedo-Boats
• Danish ww2 submarines
• Danish ww2 minelayer/sweepers

• Coastal BB Vainamoinen
• Finnish ww2 submarines
• Finnish ww2 minelayers
• Greek ww2 Destroyers
• Greek ww2 submarines
• Greek ww2 minelayers

• Cruiser ORP Dragon
• Cruiser ORP Conrad
• Brislawicka class Destroyers
• Witcher ww2 Destroyers
• Minelayer Gryf
• Wilk class sub.
• Orzel class sub.
• Jakolska class minesweepers
• Polish Monitors

• Douro class DDs
• Delfim class sub
• Velho class gb
• Albuquerque class gb
• Nunes class sloops
• Romanian ww2 Destroyers
• Romanian ww2 Submarines

• Norwegian ww2 Torpedo-Boats

• España class Battleships
• Blas de Lezo class cruisers
• Canarias class cruisers
• Cervera class cruisers
• Cruiser Navarra
• Dédalo Seaplane Carrier
• Spanish Gunboats
• Spanish Minelayers

• Sverige class CBBs (1915)
• Gustav V class CBBs (1918)
• Interwar Swedish CBB projects
• Tre Kronor class (1943)
• Gotland (1933)
• Fylgia (1905)
• Ehrernskjold class DDs (1926)
• Psilander class DDs (1926)
• Klas Horn class DDs (1931)
• Romulus class DDs (1934)
• Göteborg class DDs (1935)
• Mode class DDs (1942)
• Visby class DDs (1942)
• Öland class DDs (1945)
• Swedish ww2 TBs
• Swedish ww2 Submarines
• Swedish ww2 Minelayers
• Swedish ww2 MTBs
• Swedish ww2 Patrol Vessels
• Swedish ww2 Minesweepers

• Kocatepe class Destroyers
• Tinaztepe class Destroyers
• İnönü class submarines
• Submarine Dumplumpynar
• Submarine Sakarya
• Submarine Gur
• Submarine Batiray
• Atilay class submarines

• Cruiser Dalmacija
• Dubrovnik class DDs
• Beograd class DDs
• Osvetnik class subs
• Hrabi class subs
• Gunboat Beli Orao
• Taksin class
• Ratanakosindra class
• Sri Ayuthia class
• Puket class
• Tachin class
• Sinsamudar class sub

✈ Naval Aviation

• Douglas DT (1921)
• Naval Aircraft Factory PT (1922)
• Loening OL (1923)
• Huff-Daland TW-5 (1923)
• Martin MO (1924)
• Consolidated NY (1926)
• Vought FU (1927)
• Vought O2U/O3U Corsair (1928)
• Berliner-Joyce OJ (1931)
• Curtiss SOC seagull (1934)
• Grumman FF (1931)
• Grumman F2F (1933)
• Grumman F3F (1935)
• Northrop BT-1 (1935)
• Grumman J2F Duck (1936)
• Curtiss SBC Helldiver (1936)
• Vought SB2U Vindicator (1936)
• Brewster F2A Buffalo (1937)
• Douglas TBD Devastator (1937)
• Vought Kingfisher (1938)
• Curtiss SO3C Seamew (1939)
• Douglas SBD Dauntless (1939)
• Grumman F4F Wildcat (1940)
• Northrop N-3PB Nomad (1941)
• Brewster SB2A Buccaneer (1941)
• Grumman TBF/TBM Avenger (1941)
• Consolidated TBY Sea Wolf (1941)
• Grumman F6F Hellcat (1942)
• Vought F4U Corsair (1942) ➚
• F4U Corsair (NE)
• Curtiss SB2C Helldiver (1942)
• Curtiss SC Seahawk (1944)
• Douglas BTD Destroyer (1944)
• Grumman F7F Tigercat (1943)
• Grumman F8F Bearcat (1944)
• Ryan FR-1 Fireball (1944)
• Douglas XTB2D-1 Skypirate (1945) ➚
• Douglas AD-1 Skyraider (1945)
• Aeromarine 40 (1919)
• Naval Aircraft Factory PN (1925)
• Douglas T2D (1927)
• Consolidated P2Y (1929)
• Hall PH (1929)
• Douglas PD (1929)
• Douglas Dolphin (1931)
• General Aviation PJ (1933)
• Consolidated PBY Catalina (1935)
• Fleetwings Sea Bird (1936)
• Sikorsky VS-44 (1937)
• Grumman G-21 Goose (1937)
• Consolidated PB2Y Coronado (1937)
• Beechcraft M18 (1937)
• Sikorsky JRS (1938)
• Boeing 314 Clipper (1938)
• Martin PBM Mariner (1939)
• Grumman G-44 Wigeon (1940)
• Martin Mars (1943)
• Goodyear GA-2 Duck (1944)
• Edo Ose (1945) ➚
• Hugues Hercules (1947)
• Fairey Flycatcher (1922)
• Blackburn Backburn (1923)
• Blackburn Dart (1924)
• Blackburn Ripon (1926)
• Fairey IIIF (1927)
• Fairey Seal (1930)
• Vickers Vildebeest (1933)
• Blackburn Shark (1934)
• Blackburn Baffin (1934)
• Fairey Swordfish (1934)
• Blackburn Skua (1937)
• Gloster Sea Gladiator (1937)
• Blackburn Roc (1938)
• Fairey Albacore (1940)
• Fairey Fulmar (1940)
• Grumman Martlet (1941)
• Hawker sea Hurricane (1941)
• Brewster Bermuda (1942)
• Fairey Barracuda (1943)
• De Havilland Mosquito FB Mk.XVIII (1942)
• Grumman Gannet (1942)
• Supermarine seafire (1942)
• Grumman Tarpon (1943)
• Fairey Firefly (1943)
• Blackburn Firebrand (1944)
• Hawker Sea Fury (1944)
• Supermarine Seafang (1945)
• De Havilland Sea Mosquito (1945)
• De Havilland Sea Hornet (1946)
• Supermarine Channel (1919)
• Supermarine Sea King (1920)
• Fairey Pintail (1920)
• Supermarine Seagull (1922)
• Fairey N.4 (1923)
• Vickers Viking (1924)
• Supermarine Scarab (1924)
• English Electric Kingston (1924)
• Blackburn Velos (1925)
• Supermarine Southampton (1925)
• Blackburn Iris (1926)
• Saro A.17 Cutty Sark (1929)
• Saro A.19 Cloud (1930)
• Short Rangoon (1930)
• Short Kent (1931)
• Hawker Osprey (1932)
• Saro London (1934)
• Short S.19 Singapore (1934)
• Supermarine Scapa (1935)
• Supermarine Stranraer (1936)
• Supermarine Walrus (1936)
• Fairey Seafox (1936)
• Airspeed AS.30 Queen Wasp (1937)
• Short Sunderland (1937)
• Supermarine Sea Otter (1938)
• Short S.30/33 Empire (1938)
• Saro A36 Lerwick (1940)
• Short Seaford (1944)
• Mitsubishi 1MF (1923)
• Nakajima A1N (1930)
• Nakajima A2N (1932)
• Mitsubishi A5M "Claude" (1935)
• Nakajima A4N (1935)
• Mitsubishi A6M "zeke" (1940)
• Nakajima J1N Gekko "Irving" (1941)
• Mitsubishi J2M Raiden "Jack" (1942)
• Kawanishi N1K-J Shiden "George" (1942)
• Nakajima J5N Tenrai (1944)
• Aichi S1A Denko* (1944)
• Mitsubishi A7M reppu* (1944)
• Mitsubishi J8M1 Shusui* (1945)
• Mitsubishi J8M2 Shusui-kai* (1945)
• Kyushu J7W Shinden* (1945)
• Nakajima J9Y Kikka* (1945)
• Mitsubishi 1MT (1922)
• Mitsubishi B1M (1923)
• Mitsubishi B2M (1932)
• Kugisho B3Y (1932)
• Aichi D1A "Susie" (1934)
• Yokosuka B4Y "Jean" (1935)
• Mitsubishi B5M "Mabel" (1937)
• Nakajima B5N "Kate" (1937)
• Aichi D3A "Val" (1940)
• Nakajima B6N "Jill" (1941)
• Aichi B7A "Grace" (1942)
• Nakajima C6N Saiun "Myrt" (1942)
• Yokosuka D4Y "Judy" (1942)
• Yokosuka MXY-7 "Baka" (1944)
• Mitsubishi G3M "Nell" (1935)
• Mitsubishi G4M "Betty" (1941)
• Kawanishi P1Y Ginga "Frances" (1943)
• Kyushu Q1W Tokai "Lorna" (1943)
• Tachikawa Ki-74 "Patsy" (1944)
• Nakajima G8N Renzan "Rita" (1944)
• Mitsubishi K3M "Pine" (1930)
• Nakajima C2N1 (1931)
• Yokosuka K5Y1 "Willow" (1933)
• Nakajima L1N1 (1937)
• Kawanishi H6K2/4-L (1938)
• Kyushu K10W1 "Oak" (1941)
• Kyushu K11W1 Shiragiku (1942)
• Mitsubishi L4M1 (1942)
• Nakajima G5N Shinzan "Liz" (1942)
• Yokosuka L3Y "Tina" (1942)
• Kyushu Q1W1-K "Lorna"(1943)
• Aichi M6A1-K Nanzan (1943)
• Yokosuka MXY-7K-1 "Kai" (1944)
• Yokosuka MXY-8 Akigusa (1945)
• Hiro H1H (1926)
• Yokosuka E1Y (1926)
• Nakajima E2N (1927)
• Aichi E3A (1929)
• Yokosuka K4Y (1930)
• Nakajima E4N (1931)
• Nakajima E8N "Dave" (1935)
• Kawanishi E7K "Alf" (1935)
• Kawanishi E11K1 (1937)
• Aichi E11A "Laura" (1938)
• Watanabe E9W (1938)
• Watanabe K8W* (1938)
• Mitsubishi F1M "pete" (1941)
• Nakajima E14Y "Glen" (1941)
• Aichi E13A "Jake" (1941)
• Aichi H9A (1942)
• Nakajima A6M2-N (1942)
• Kawanishi E15K Shiun (1942)
• Kawanishi N1K1 "Rex" (1943)
• Aichi E16A "Zuiun" (1944)
• Aichi M6A1 Seiran (1945)
• Kawanishi E11K* (1937)
• Kawanishi H6K "Mavis" (1938)
• Kawanishi K6K* (1938)
• Kawanishi H6K3 (1939)
• Kawanishi K8K (1940)
• Kawanishi H8K "Emily" (1942)
• Yokosuka H5Y "Cherry" (1936)
• Mitsubishi 2MR (1923)
• Yokosho K1Y (1924)
• Yokosuka K2Y (1928)
• Hitachi LXG1 (1934)
• Kyushu K10W "Oak" (1943)
• CANT Z.501 Gabbiano
• CANT Z.506 Airone
• Caproni Ca.316
• Fiat CR.20 Idro
• Savoia-Marchetti S.55
• Savoia-Marchetti S.57
• Savoia-Marchetti S.59
• Savoia-Marchetti SM.62
• Levasseur PL5/9 (1924)
• Wibault 74 (1926)
• CAMS 37 (1926)
• Gourdou-Leseurre GL.300 series (1926-39)
• Levasseur PL7 (1928)
• Levasseur PL10 (1929)
• Latécoere 290 (1931)
• Breguet 521/22/23 (1931)
• Leo H257 bis (1932)
• Latécoere 300 series (1932)
• Morane 226 (1934)
• Dewoitine 376 (1934)
• Latécoere 321 (1935)
• Potez 452 (1935)
• Latécoere 38.1 (1936)
• Loire 210 (1936)
• Leo H43 (1936)
• Levasseur PL107 (1937)
• Loire 130 (1937)
• Dewoitine HD.730 (1938)
• Latecoere 298 (1938)
• LN 401 (1938)
• Shavrov SH-2 (1928)
• Tupolev TB-1P (1931)
• Tupolev MR-6 (1933)
• Beriev MBR-2 (1930)
• Beriev Be-2 (1936)
• Beriev BE-4 (1940)
• Tupolev MTB-1 (1941)
• Tupolev MTB-2 (1942)
• Arado 197 (1937)
• Fieseler Fi-167 (1938)
• Junkers Ju-87C (1938)
• Messerschmitt Me 109T (1941)
• Messerschmitt 155 (1944)
• Heinkel HE 1 (1921)
• Caspar U1 (1922)
• Dornier Do J Wal (1922)
• Dornier Do 16 ‘Wal’ (1923)
• Heinkel HE 2 (1923)
• Junkers A 20/Ju 20 (1923)
• Rohrbach Ro II (1923)
• Rohrbach Ro III (1924)
• Dornier Do D (1924)
• Dornier Do E (1924)
• Junkers G 24 (1924)
• Rohrbach Ro IV (1925)
• Heinkel HD 14 (1925)
• Heinkel HE 25 (1925)
• Heinkel HE 26 (1925)
• Heinkel HE 24 (1926)
• Heinkel HE 4 (1926)
• Junkers W 33/34 (1926)
• Heinkel HE 5 (1926)
• Rohrbach Ro VII Robbe (1926)
• Rohrbach Ro V Rocco (1927)
• Heinkel HE 31 (1927)
• Heinkel HE 8 (1927)
• Arado W II (1928)
• Heinkel HD 9 (1928)
• Heinkel HD 16 (1928)
• Heinkel He 55 (1929)
• Heinkel He 56 (1929)
• Arado SSD I (1930)
• Junkers Ju 52w (1930)
• Heinkel HE 42 (1931)
• Heinkel He 50 (1931)
• Heinkel He 59 (1931)
• Arado Ar 66 (1932)
• Heinkel He 58 (1932)
• Junkers Ju 46 (1932)
• Klemm Kl 35bW (1932)
• Heinkel He 62 (1932)
• Heinkel He 60 (1933)
• Heinkel He 51w (1933)
• Arado Ar 95 (1937)
• Arado Ar 196 (1937)
• Arado Ar 199 (1939)
• Blohm & Voss Ha 139 (1936)
• Blohm & Voss BV 138 (1937)
• Blohm & Voss Ha 140 (1937)
• Blohm & Voss BV 222 (1938)
• Blohm & Voss BV 238 (1942)
• Dornier Do 24/318 (1937)
• Dornier Do 18 (1935)
• Dornier Do 26 (1938)
• Dornier Do 22 (1938)
• DFS Seeadler (1936)
• Focke-Wulf Fw 58W (1935)
• Focke-Wulf Fw 62 (1937)
• Heinkel He 114 (1936)
• Heinkel He 115 (1936)
• Heinkel He 119 (1936)
• Fokker W.3 (1915)
• Fokker T.II (1921)
• Fokker B.I/III (1922)
• Fokker B.II (1923)
• Fokker T.III (1924)
• Fokker T.IV (1927)
• Fokker B.IV (1928)
• Fokker C.VII W (1928)
• Fokker C.VIII W (1929)
• Fokker C.XI W (1934)
• Fokker C.XIV-W (1937)
• Fokker T.VIII-W (1939)

☢ The Cold War

☭ warsaw pact.

• Chapayev class (1945)
• Kynda class (1961)
• Kresta I class (1964)
• Kresta II class (1968)
• Kara class (1969)
• Kirov class (1977)
• Slava class (1979)
• Moksva class (1965)
• Kiev class (1975)
• Kusnetsov class aircraft carriers (1988)
• Skoryi class destroyers (1948)
• Neustrashimyy (1951)
• Kotlin class (1953)
• Kildin class (1959)
• Krupny class (1959)
• Kashin class (1963)
• Kanin class (1967)
• Sovremenny class (1978)
• Udaloy class (1980)
• Project Anchar DDN (1988)
• Kola class (1951)
• Riga class (1954)
• Petya class (1960)
• Mirka class (1964)
• Grisha class (1968)
• Krivak class (1970)
• Koni class (1976)
• Neustrashimyy class (1988)
• Poti class (1962)
• Nanuchka class (1968)
• Pauk class (1978)
• Tarantul class (1981)
• Dergach class (1987)
• Svetlyak class (1989)
• Whiskey SSK (1948)
• Zulu SSK (1952)
• Quebec SSK (1950)
• Romeo SSK (1957)
• November SSN (1957)
• Golf SSB (1957)
• Hotel SSBN (1959)
• Echo I SSGN (1959)
• Echo II SSGN (1961)
• Juliett SSG (1962)
• Foxtrot SSK (1963)
• Victor SSN I (1965)
• Yankee SSBN (1966)
• Alfa SSN (1967)
• Charlie SSGN (1968)
• Papa SSGN (1968)
• Victor II SSN (1971)
• Tango SSK (1972)
• Delta I SSBN (1972)
• Delta II SSBN (1975)
• Victor III SSN (1977)
• Delta III SSBN (1976)
• Delta IV SSBN (1980)
• Typhoon SSBN (1980)
• Oscar SSGN (1980)
• Sierra SSN (1982)
• Mike SSN (1983)
• Akula SSN (1984)
• Kilo SSK (1986)
• Kamov Ka-10 Hat
• Kamov Ka-15 Hen
• Kamov Ka-18 Hog
• Kamov Ka-25 Hormone
• Kamov Ka-27 Helix
• Mil Mi-14 Haze
• Mil Mi-4 Hound
• Yakovlev Yak-38
• Sukhoi Su-17
• Sukhoi Su-24
• Ilyushin Il-28 Beagle
• Myasishchev M-4 Bison
• Tupolev Tu-14 Bosun
• Tupolev Tu-142
• Ilyushin Il-38
• Tupolev Tu-16
• Antonov An-12
• Tupolev Tu-22
• Tupolev Tu-95
• Tupolev Tu-22M
• Beriev Be-6 Madge
• Beriev Be-10 Mallow
• Beriev Be-12
• Lun class Ekranoplanes
• A90 Orlan Ekranoplanes
• P2 class FACs
• P4 class FACs
• P6 class FACs
• P8 class FACs
• P10 class FACs
• Komar class FACs (1960)
• Project 184 FACs
• OSA class FACs
• Shershen class FACs
• Mol class FACs
• Turya class HFL
• Matka class HFL
• Pchela class FACs
• Sarancha class HFL
• Babochka class HFL
• Mukha class HFL
• Muravey class HFL
• MO-V sub-chasers
• MO-VI sub-chasers
• Stenka class sub-chasers
• kronstadt class PBs
• SO-I class PBs
• Poluchat class PBs
• Zhuk clas PBs
• MO-105 sub-chasers
• Project 191 River Gunboats
• Shmel class river GB
• Yaz class river GB
• Piyavka class river GB
• Vosh class river GB
• Saygak class river GB
• Yurka class
• Gorya class
• Project 255 class
• Sasha class
• Vanya class
• Zhenya class
• Almaz class
• Sonya class
• Yevgenya class
• Andryusha class
• Ilyusha class
• Alesha class
• Rybak class
• Baltika class
• SChS-150 class
• Project 696 class
• MP 10 class
• Polocny class
• Ropucha class
• Alligator class
• Ivan Rogov class
• Aist class HVC
• Pomornik class HVC
• Gus class HVC
• T-4 class LC
• Ondatra class LC
• Lebed class HVC
• Tsaplya class HVC
• Utenov class

• Parchim class corvettes (1985)
• Hai class sub-chasers (1958)
• Volksmarine's minesweepers
• Volksmarine's FAC
• Volksmarine's Landing ships

• ORP Warzsawa (1970)
• ORP Kaszub (1986)
• Polish Landing ships
• Polish FACs
• Polish Patrol ships
• Polish Minesweepers

• Missile Destroyer Muntenia (1982)
• Tetal class Frigates (1981)
• Romanian river patrol crafts

✦ NATO

• Zerstorer class DDs (1958)
• Hamburg class DDs (1960)
• Lütjens class missile DDs (1965)
• Gneisenau class FFs (1958)
• Scharnhorst class FFs (1959)
• Köln class FFs (1958)
• Deutschland FFG (1960)
• Bremen class FFs (1979)
• Brandenbug class FFs (1992)
• Hai class SSK (1957)
• Type 201 class SSK (1961)
• Type 202 class SSK (1965)
• Type 205 class SSK (1962)
• Type 206 class SSK (1971)
• Type 209 class SSK (1972)
• Bundesmarine amphibious ships
• Thetis class corvettes
• Corvette Hans Burkner
• Rhein class suppert ships
• Mosel class support ships
• Lahn class support ships
• Silbermöwe class FACs
• Jaguar class FACs
• Hugin/Pfeil FACs
• Zobel class FACs
• S41 class FACs
• S61 class FACs
• S71 class FACs
• KW class PBs
• Kw 15 class PBs
• Neustadt class PBs
• Bamberg class minelayers
• Sachsenwald class mine transports
• Type 319 minesweepers
• Lindau class minesweepers
• Vegesack class minesweepers
• Schutze class minesweepers
• Bundesmarine R Boote
• Hansa inshore Ms.
• Ariadne class inshore Ms.
• Frauenlob class inshore Ms.
• Holnis class indhore Ms.
• Hameln class indhore Ms.
• Frankentahl class indhore Ms.
• Hvidbjornen class Frigates (1962)
• Frigate Beskytteren (1976)
• Peder Skram class Frigates (1965)
• Thetis class frigates (1989)
• Bellona class corvettes (1955)
• Niels Juel class corvettes (1979)
• Delfinen class submarines (1958)
• Narhvalen class submarines (1970)
• Bille class Torpedo Boats (1946)
• Flyvefisken class Torpedo Boats (1954)
• Falken class Torpedo Boats (1960)
• Soloven class Torpedo Boats (1962)
• Willemoes class FAC (1976)
• Flyvefisken class FAC (1989)
• Daphne class Patrol Boats (1960)
• Danish Minelayers
• Danish Minesweepers
• CV Karel Doorman (1948)
• De Zeven Provinciën class cruisers (1945)
• Holland class DDs (1953)
• Friesland class DDs (1953)
• Roodfier class Frigates (1953)
• Frigate Lynx (1954)
• Van Speijk class Frigates (1965)
• Tromp class Frigates (1973)
• Kortenaer class frigates (1976)
• Van H. class Frigates (1983)
• K. Doorman class Frigates (1988)
• Dolfijn clas sub. (1959)
• Zwaardvis class subs. (1970)
• Walrus class subs. (1985)
• ATD Rotterdam (1990s)
• Dokkum class minesweepers (1954)
• Alkmaar class minesweepers (1982)
• Hydra class FFs (1990)
• Greek cold war Subs
• Greek Amphibious ships
• Greek MTBs/FACs
• Greek Patrol Vessels

• Eithne class PBs (1983)
• Cliona class PBs
• Deidre/Emer class PBs
• Orla class fast PBs

• Giuseppe Garibaldi (1983)
• Conte di Cavour (2004)*
• Trieste (2022)*
• Missile cruiser Garibaldi (1960)
• Doria class H. cruisers (1962)
• Vittorio Veneto (1969)
• Impetuoso class (1956)
• Impavido class (1957)
• Audace class (1971)
• De La Penne class (1989)
• Orizzonte class (2007)*
• Grecale class (1949)
• Canopo class (1955)
• Bergamini class (1960)
• Alpino class (1967)
• Lupo class (1976)
• Maestrale class (1981)
• Bergamini class (2013)*
• Thaon di Revel class (2020)*
• Albatros class (1954)
• De Cristofaro class (1965)
• Minerva class (1987)
• Cassiopeia class (1989)
• Esploratore class (1997)*
• Sirio class (2003)*
• Commandanti class (2004)*
• Toti class (1967)
• Sauro class (1976)
• Pelosi class (1986)
• Sauro class (1992)*
• Todaro class (2006)*
• San Giorgio LSD (1987)
• Gorgona class CTS (1987)
• Italian Landing Crafts (1947-2020)
• Folgore PB (1952)
• Lampo class PBs (1960)
• Freccia class PBs (1965)
• Sparviero class GMHF (1973)
• Stromboli class AOR (1975)
• Anteo SRS (1980)
• Etna class LSS (1988)
• Vulcano AOR (1998)*
• Elettra EWSS (2003)*
• Etna AOR (2021)*
• Lerici class (1982)
• Gaeta class (1992)*

• Jean Bart (1949)
• Dixmude (1946)
• Arromanches (1946)
• Lafayette class light carriers (1954)
• PA 28 class project (1947)
• Clemenceau class (1957)
• Jeanne d'Arc (1961)
• PA 58 (1958)
• PH 75/79 (1975)
• Charles de Gaulle (1994)
• De Grasse (1946)
• Chateaurenault class (1950)
• Colbert (1956)
• Surcouf class (1953)
• Duperre class (1956)
• La Galissonniere class (1960)
• Suffren class (1965)
• Aconit (1970)
• Tourville class (1972)
• G. Leygues class (1976)
• Cassard class (1985)
• Le Corse class (1952)
• Le Normand class (1954)
• Cdt Riviere class (1958)
• Estiennes D'Orves class (1973)
• Lafayette class (1990)
• Floreal class (1990)
• La Creole class (1940)
• Narval class (1954)
• Arethuse class (1957)
• Daphne class (1959)
• Gymnote test SSBN (1964)
• Le Redoutable SSBN (1967)
• Agosta SSN (1974)
• Rubis SSN (1979)
• Amethyste SSN (1988)
• Le Triomphant SSBN (started 1989)
• Issole (1958)
• EDIC class (1958)
• Trieux class (1958)
• Ouragan lass (1963)
• Champlain lass (1973)
• Bougainville (1986)
• Foudre class (1988)
• CDIC lass (1989)
• Le Fougueux class (1958)
• La Combattante class (1964)
• Trident class (1976)
• L'Audacieuse class (1984)
• Grebe class (1989)
• Sirius class (1952)
• Circe class (1972)
• Eridan class (1979)
• Vulcain class (1986)

• HCMS Bonaventure (1957)
• St Laurent class DDE (1951)
• Algonquin class DDE (1952)
• Restigouche class DDs (1954)
• Mackenzie class DDs (1961)
• Annapolis class DDH (1963)
• Iroquois class DDH (1970)
• River (mod) 1955
• Tribal class FFs (Pjct)
• City class DDH (1988)
• Ojibwa class sub. (1964)
• Kingston class MCFV (1995)

• Cold War Aircraft Carriers
• Centaur class (1947)
• HMS Victorious (1957)
• HMS Eagle (1946)
• HMS Ark Royal (1950)
• HMS Hermes (1953)
• CVA-01 class (1966 project)
• Invincible class (1977)
• Tiger class (1945)
• Daring class (1949)
• 1953 design (project)
• Cavendish class (1944)
• FADEP program (1946)
• County class GMD (1959)
• Bristol class GMD (1969)
• Sheffield class GMD (1971)
• Manchester class GMD (1980)
• Type 43 GMD (1974)
• Rapid class (1942)
• Tenacious class (1941)
• Whitby class (1954)
• Blackwood class (1953)
• Leopard class (1954)
• Salisbury class (1953)
• Tribal class (1959)
• Rothesay class (1957)
• Leander class (1961)
• BB Leander class (1967)
• HMS Mermaid (1966)
• Amazon class (1971)
• Broadsword class (1976)
• Boxer class (1981)
• Cornwall class (1985)
• Duke class (1987)
• T (conv.) class (1944)
• T (Stream) class (1945)
• A (Mod.) class (1944)
• Explorer class (1954)
• Strickleback class (1954)
• Porpoise class (1956)
• Oberon class (1959)
• HMS Dreanought SSN (1960)
• Valiant class SSN (1963)
• Resolution class SSBN (1966)
• Swiftsure class SSN (1971)
• Trafalgar class SSN (1981)
• Upholder class (1986)
• Vanguard class SSBN (started)
• Fearless class (1963)
• HMS Ocean (started)
• Sir Lancelot LLS (1963)
• Sir Galahad (1986)
• Ardennes/Avon class (1976)
• Brit. LCVPs (1963)
• Brit. LCM(9) (1980)
• Ton class (1952)
• Ham class (1947)
• Ley class (1952)
• HMS Abdiel (1967)
• HMS Wilton (1972)
• Hunt class (1978)
• Venturer class (1979)
• River class (1983)
• Sandown class (1988)
• HMS Argus ATS (1988)
• Ford class SDF (1951)
• Cormorant class (1985)
• Kingfisger class (1974)
• HMS Jura OPV (1975)
• Island class OPVs (1976)
• HMS Speedy PHDF (1979)
• Castle class OPVs (1980)
• Peacock class OPVs (1982)
• MBT 538 class (1948)
• Gay class FACs (1952)
• Dark class FACs (1954)
• Bold class FACs (1955)
• Brave class FACs (1957)
• Tenacity class PCs (1967)
• Brave class FPCs (1969)

• Dédalo aircraft carrier (1967)
• Principe de Asturias (1982)
• Alava class DDs (1946)
• Audaz class DDs (1955)
• Oquendo class DDs (1956)
• Roger de Lauria class (1967)
• Baleares class FFs (1971)
• Descubierta class FFs (1978)
• Numancia class FFs (1987)
• Pizarro class gunboats (1944)
• Artevida class Cvs (1952)
• Serviola class Cvs (1990)
• Spanish cold-war submarines
• Spanish FACs
• Spanish Minesweepers
• Tre Kronor class (1946)
• Halland class DDs (1952) (1945)
• Ostergotland class DDs (1956)
• Spica III class Corvettes (1984)
• Goteborg class Corvettes (1989)
• U1 class subs (mod.1963)
• Hajen class subs (1954)
• Sjoormen class subs (1967)
• Nacken class subs (1978)
• Vastergotland class subs (1986)
• Gotland class subs (1995)
• T32 class MTBs (1951)
• T42 class MTBs (1955)
• Plejad class FACs (1951)
• Spica I class FACs (1966)
• Spica II class FACs (1972)
• Hugin class FACs (1973)
• Swedish Patrol Boats
• Swedish minesweepers
• Swedish Icebreakers

• Kwang Hua class FFs (1991)
• Kwang Hua II class FFs (1993)
• Hai Lung class sub. (1986)
• LCU 1466 class LCU (1955)
• Fuh Chow class FAC
• Lung Chiang class FAC
• Hai Ou class FAC(M)
• MWW 50 class minehunters

• Berk class FFs (1971)
• Atilay class sub. (1974)
• Cakabey class LST
• Osman Gazi class LST
• Turkish Fast Attack Crafts
• Turkish Patrol Boats

• Aircraft carriers
• United States class (1950)
• Essex SBC-27 (1950s)
• Midway class (mod)
• Forrestal class (1954)
• Kitty Hawk class (1960)
• USS Enterprise (1960)
• Nimitz Class (1972)
• Iowa Class (cold war)
• Des Moines Class (1947)
• Worcester Class (1948)
• Boston Class (1955)
• Galveston Class (1958)
• Providence Class (1958)
• Albany Class (1962)
• USS Long Beach (1960)
• Leahy Class (1961)
• USS Bainbridge (1961)
• Belknap Class (1963)
• USS Truxtun (1964)
• California Class (1971)
• Virginia Class (1974)
• CSGN Class (1976)
• Ticonderoga Class (1981)
• Mitscher class (1952)
• Fletcher DDE (1950s)
• USS Norfolk (1953)
• F. Sherman class (1956)
• Farragut class (1958)
• Charles F. Adams class (1958)
• Gearing FRAM I class (1960s)
• Sumner FRAM II class (1970s)
• Spruance class (1975)
• Dealey class (1953)
• Claud Jones class (1958)
• Bronstein class (1962)
• Garcia class (1963)
• Brooke class (1963)
• Knox class (1966)
• OH Perry class (1976)
• Guppy class Submarines (1946-59)
• Barracuda class SSK (1951)
• Tang class SSK (1951)
• USS Darter SSK (1956)
• Mackerel (T1) class SSK (1953)
• USS Albacore SSK (1953)
• USS X1 Midget subs (1955)
• Barbel class SSK (1958)
• USS Nautilus SSN (1954)
• USS Seawolf SSN (1955)
• Skate class SSN (1957)
• Skipjack class SSN (1958)
• USS Tullibee SSN (1960)
• Tresher/Permit class SSN (1960)
• Sturgeon class SSN (1963)
• Los Angeles class SSN (1974)
• Seawolf class SSN (1989)
• Grayback class SSBN (1957)
• USS Halibut SSBN (1959)
• Gato SSG (1960s)
• E. Allen class SSBN (1960)
• G. Washington class SSBN (1969)
• Lafayette class SSBN (1962)
• Ohio class SSBN (1979)
• Migraine class RP (1950s)
• Sailfish class RP (1955)
• USS Triton class RP (1958)
• Iwo Jima class HC (1960)
• Tarawa class LHD (1973)
• Wasp class LHD (1987)
• Thomaston class LSD (1954)
• Raleigh class LSD (1962)
• Austin class LSD (1964)
• Anchorage class LSD (1968)
• Whibdey Island class LSD (1983)
• Parish class LST (1952)
• County class LST (1957)
• Newport class LST (1968)
• Tulare class APA (1953)
• Charleston class APA (1967)
• USS Carronade support ship (1953)
• Agile class (1952)
• Ability (1956)
• Avenger (1987)
• USS Cardinal (1983)
• Adjutant class (1953)
• USS Cove (1958)
• USS Bittern (1957)
• Minesweeping boats/launches
• USS Northampton CS (1951)
• Blue Ridge class CS (1969)
• Wright class CS (1969)
• PT812 class (1950)
• Nasty class FAC (1962)
• Osprey class FAC (1967)
• Asheville class FACs (1966)
• USN Hydrofoils (1962-81)
• Vietnam Patrol Boats (1965-73)
• Hamilton class (1965)
• Reliance class (1963)
• Bear class (1979)
• cold war CG PBs

☯ ASIA

• Type 7 Anshan class (1955)
• Type 051 Luda class (1972)
• Type 052 Luhu Class (1991)
• Type 065 Chengdu class (1956)
• Type 065 Jiangnan class (1967)
• Type 053K Jiangdong class (1973)
• Type 053H Jianghu class (1977)
• Type 053H2G Jiangwei I class (1990)
• Type 03 class (1956)
• Type 033 class (1963)
• Ming class (1973)
• Han class SSN (1970)
• Xia class SSBN (1981)
• Wuhan class SSBN (1987)
• Huchuan class THF (1966)
• Hoku class FAC (1965)
• Huangfeng class FAC (1966)
• Hola class FAC (1966)
• Houxin/Houjian class FAC (1990s)
• Yu Ling class LST (1971)
• Yukan class LST (1978)
• Yudao class LST (1980)
• Yunnan class LC (1968)
• Huangpu class RPC (1950)
• Shantou class CPC (1956)
• Shanghai class LPC (1959)
• Hainan class LPC (1964)
• Yulin class RPC (1964)
• Haikou class LPC (1968)
• Haijui class LPfC (1987)
• Chinese Minesweepers

• Vikrant class CVs (1961)
• Viraat class CVs (1986)
• Cruiser Delhi (1948)
• Cruiser Mysore (1957)
• Raja class DDs (1949)
• Rajput class DDs (1980)
• Delhi class DDs (1990)
• Khukri class FFs (1956)
• Talwar class FFs (1958)
• Brahmaputra class FFs (1957)
• Nilgiri class FFs (1968)
• Godavari class FFs (1980)
• Kusura class subs (1970)
• Shishumar class subs (1984)
• Sindhugosh class subs (1986)
• Indian Amphibious ships
• Indian corvettes (1969-90)
• Khukri class corvettes (1989)
• SDB Mk.2 class PBs (1977)
• Vikram class OPVs (1979)
• Sukanya class OPVs (1989)

• Fatahilla class Frigates (1977)
• Pattimura class corvettes (1956)
• Indonesian Marines
• Indonesian Mine Vessels
• Indonesian FAC/OPVs

• Harukaze class DD (1955)
• Ayanami class DD (1957)
• Murasame class DD (1958)
• Akizuki class DD (1959)
• Amatukaze missile DD (1963)
• Yamagumo class DDE (1965)
• Takatsuki class DD (1966)
• Minegumo class DDE (1967)
• Haruna class DDH (1971)
• Tachikaze class DD (1974)
• Shirane class DDH (1978)
• Hatsuyuki class DDs (1980)
• Hatakaze class DDs (1984)
• Asigiri class DDs (1986)
• Kongo class DDs (started 1990)
• Akebono class FFs (1955)
• Isuzu class FFs (1961)
• Chikugo class FFs (1970)
• Ishikari class FFs (1980)
• Yubari class FFs (1982)
• Abukuma class FFs (1988)
• Oyashio class Sub. (1959)
• Hayashio class Sub. (1961)
• Natsushio class Sub. (1963)
• Oshio class Sub. (1964)
• Uzushio class Sub. (1970)
• Yushio class Sub. (1979)
• Harushio class Sub. (1989)
• Japanese Landing Ships
• Japanese Large Patrol Ships
• Japanese Patrol Crafts
• Japanese Minesweepers
• Japanese Sub-chasers

• Najin class Frigates
• Experimental Frigate Soho
• Sariwan class Corvettes
• Sinpo class subs.
• Sang-O class subs.
• Yono class subs.
• Yugo class subs.
• Hungnam class LCM
• Hante class LST
• Songjong class HVC
• Sin Hung/Ku Song FACs
• Anju class FACs
• Iwon class FACs
• Chaho class FACs
• Hong Jin class FAC-G
• Sohung class MTBs
• Sinpo class MTBs
• Nampo class FALC

• Datu Kalantian class Frigates (1976)
• Bacolod City class LS(L)
• Philippino Patrol Crafts

• Ulsan class frigates (1980)
• Pohang class corvettes (1984)
• Dong Hae class corvettes (1982)
• Han Kang class patrol corvettes (1985)
• Chamsuri (PKM 268) PBs (1978)
• ROKS coast guard vessels
• Paek Ku class FAC (1975)
• Kang Keong class minehunters (1986)

☪ MIDDLE EAST

• Eilat class Corvettes (1993)
• SAAR 5 Project
• SAAR 4.5 FAC
• Dvora class FAC
• Shimrit class MHFs
• IDF FACs/PBs
• Etzion Geber LST
• Ash class LCT

• Destroyer Artemiz (1965)
• Bayandor class FFs (1963)
• Alvand class FFs (1969)
• Khalije Fars class DDs (2016)*

♅ OCEANIA

• HMAS Sydney (1948*)
• HMAS Melbourne (1955*)
• Tobruk class DDs (1947)
• Voyager class DDs (1952)
• Perth class MDD (1963)
• Quadrant class FFs (1953)
• Yarra class FFs (1958)
• Swan class FFs (1967)
• Adelaide class MFFs (1978)
• Anzac class MFFs (1990s)
• Oxley class subs (1965)
• Collins class subs (1990s)
• Australian Amphibious ships
• Fremantle class PBs

• HMNZS Royalist (1956)
• Pukaki class patrol Crafts (1974)
• Moa class patrol crafts (1983)
• HMNZS Aotearoa (2019)*

☩ South America

• ARA Independencia (1958)
• ARA Veinticinco de Mayo (1968)
• Belgrano class cruisers (1951)
• Almirante Brown class Frigates (1981)
• Mantilla class corvettes (1981)
• Espora class corvettes (1982)
• Salta class submarines (1972)
• Santa Cruz class submarines (1982)

• Minas Gerais aircraft carrier (1956)
• Cruiser Barroso (1951)
• Cruiser Tamandare (1951)
• Acre class destroyers (1945)
• Niteroi class Frigates (1974)
• Ihnauma class Frigate (1986)
• Tupi class submarines (1987)
• Brazilian patrol ships
• O'Higgins class cruisers
• Lattore Cruiser (1971)
• Almirante class destroyers (1960)
• Prat class M. Destroyers (1982)
• Almirante Lynch class Frigates (1972)
• Thomson class subs (1982)
• Small surface combatants

• Almirante Grau(ii) class
• Almirante Grau(iii) class
• Abtao class sub.
• PR-72P class corvettes
• Velarde class OPVs

℣ AFRICA

• October class FAC/M (1975)
• Ramadan class FAC/M (1979)

• Wager class destroyers (1950)
• President class Frigates (1960)
• Maria Van Riebeeck class subs (1969)
• Astrant class subs (1977)
• Minister class FAC(M) (1977)
• SANDF Minesweepers

✚ MORE

• ⚔ Indochina War naval ops
• ⚔ Korean War naval ops
• ⚔ 1956 intervention in Suez
• ⚔ 1960 Cuban crisis
• ⚔ 1960 US/Soviet compared strenghts
• ⚔ 1963-69 Algerian war naval ops
• ⚔ Naval warfare in Vietnam
• ⚔ Middle East naval fights
• ⚔ 1980 Falkland wars
• ⚔ 1990 Gulf War
• ⚔ Modern PLAN
• Grumman Mallard 1946
• Edo OSE-1 1946
• Short Solent 1946
• de Havilland Canada DHC-2 Beaver 1947
• Grumman Albatross 1947
• Hughes H-4 Hercules (completed & first flight, prototype)
• Saunders-Roe SR.A/1 1947 (jet fighter seaplane prototype)
• Short Sealand 1947
• Martin P5M Marlin 1948
• Supermarine Seagull ASR-1 1948 (prototype successor to the Walrus)
• Nord 1400 Noroit 1949
• Norsk Flyindustri Finnmark 5A (interesting Norwegian prototype)
• SNCASE SE-1210 French prototype flying boat 1949
• Convair R3Y Tradewind USN patrol flying boat 1950
• Goodyear Drake (proto seaboat) 1950
• de Havilland Canada DHC-3 Otter 1951 (RCAN)
• Saunders-Roe Princess 1952 (RN requisition possible)
• Convair F2Y Sea Dart Prototype delta jet fighter seaplane 1953
• Martin P6M SeaMaster strategic bomber flying boat 1955
• Ikarus Kurir H 1957
• Shin Meiwa UF-XS prototype 1962
• Shin Meiwa PS-1 patrol flying boat 1967
• Canadair CL-215 1967 water bomber, some operated by the RCAN
• GAF Nomad patrol australian land/floatplane 1971
• Harbin SH-5 Main PLAN patrol flying boat 1976
• Cessna 208 Caravan transport flotplane (some navies) 1982
• Dornier Seastar prototype 1984

Patrol Planes

• ATR 42 MP Surveyor (Italy, 1984)
• ATR 72 MP (Italy 1988)
• ATR 72 ASW (France, 1988)
• Breguet Atlantic (France 1965)
• Nord 1402 Noroit (France 1949)
• Avro Shackleton (UK 1949)
• BAE Nimrod MRA4 (UK 2004)
• Britten-Norman Defender/Islander (UK 1970)
• Fairey Gannet (UK 1949)
• Hawker-Siddeley Nimrod (UK 1967)
• Beechcraft King Air (USA 1963)
• Basler BT-67 (USA 1990)
• Boeing 737 Surveiller (USA 1967)
• Boeing P-8 Poseidon (USA 2009)
• Lockheed P-2 Neptune (USA, 1945)
• Lockheed P-3 Orion (USA 1959)
• Martin P4M Mercator (USA 1946)
• Convair P5Y (USA 1950)
• Douglas/BSAS Turbo Dakota (USA 1991)
• Bombardier DHC-8 MPA/MSA (Can 2007)
• Canadair CP-107 Argus (Can 1957)
• CASA C-212 MPA (Spain 1971)
• CASA/IPTN CN-235 MPA/HC-144 Ocean Sentry (Spain 1983)
• CASA C-295 MPA (Spain 1997)
• Diamond DA42 Guardian (Austria 2002)
• Dornier 228 (Germany 1981)
• Embraer EMB 111 Bandeirante (Brazil 1968)
• Embraer R-99 (Brazil 2001)
• Embraer P-99 (Brazil 2003)
• Fokker F27 200-MAR (NL 1955)
• Fokker F27 Maritime Enforcer (NL 1955)
• IAI 1124N Sea Scan (Israel 1977)
• Kawasaki P-1 (Japan 2007)
• Kawasaki P-2J (Japan 1966)
• Saab Swordfish (Sweden 2016)
• Shaanxi Y-8F,Q,X (China 1984)
• Short Seavan (UK 1976)
• Beriev Be-8 1947
• Beriev Be-6 1949
• Beriev R-1 turbojet prototype seaplane 1952
• Beriev Be-10 1956
• Beriev Be-12 Chaika 1960
• Beriev Be-40/A-40 Albatross prototypes 1986
• Chetverikov TA-1 1947
• Ilyushin Il-38 'May' (USSR 1967)
• Myasishchev 3M/3MD (USSR 1956)
• Tupolev Tu-16T/PL/R/RM/SP (USSR 1952)
• Tupolev Tu-95MR (USSR 1961)
• Tupolev Tu-142 (USSR 1968)

Carrier Planes

• Douglas A-3 Skywarrior
• Douglas A-4 Skyhawk
• Douglas A2D Skyshark
• Douglas AD Skyraider
• Douglas F3D Skynight
• Douglas F4D Skyray
• Grumman A-6 Intruder
• Grumman AF Guardian
• Grumman C-1 Trader
• Grumman C-2 Greyhound
• Grumman E-1 Tracer
• Grumman E-2 Hawkeye
• Grumman EA-6B Prowler
• Grumman F-9 Cougar
• Grumman F9F Panther
• Grumman F-11 Tiger
• Grumman F-14 Tomcat ➚
• Grumman S-2 Tracker
• Lockheed Martin F-35B
• Lockheed S-3 Viking ➚
• McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II
• McDonnell Douglas T-45 Goshawk
• McDonnell FH Phantom
• McDonnell F2H Banshee
• McDonnell F3H Demon
• McDonnell-Douglas AV-8B Harrier II
• McDonnell-Douglas F/A-18 Hornet
• North American A-5 Vigilante
• North American AJ Savage
• North American FJ Fury
• North American T-2 Buckeye
• North American T-28 Trojan
• Vought A-7 Corsair
• Vought F-8 Crusader
• Vought F6U Pirate
• Vought F7U Cutlass
• Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet
• Boeing EA-18G Growler

• Blackburn Buccaneer
• Boulton Paul Sea Balliol
• BAe Sea Harrier
• de Havilland Sea Vampire
• de Havilland Sea Venom
• de Havilland Sea Vixen
• Fairey Gannet
• Hawker Sea Hawk
• Short Seamew
• Westland Wyvern
• Breguet Alizé
• Dassault Étendard IV
• Dassault Super Étendard
• Dassault Rafale M
• Fouga CM.175 Zéphyr M
• SNCASE Aquilon

• Sukhoi Su-25UTG/UBP
• Sukhoi Su-33

Navy Helicopters

• Harbin Z-5 (1958)
• Harbin Z-9 Haitun (1981)
• Changhe Z-8 (1985)
• Harbin Z-20 (in development)
• Agusta Bell AB-205 (1961)
• Agusta Bell AB-212 (1971)
• Agusta AS-61 (1968)
• Hal Dhruv (Indian Navy)
• Alouette II (1955)
• Alouette III (1959)
• Super Frelon (1965)
• Super Cougar H225M ()
• MH-65 Dolphin ()
• UH-72 Lakota ()
• MBB Bo 105 (1967)
• NHIndustries NH90
• Mitsubishi H-60 (1987)
• PZL W-3 Sokół (1979)
• IAR 330M (1975)
• Westland Lynx (1971)
• Westland Scout (1960) RAN
• Westland Sea King (1969)
• Westland Wasp (1962)
• Westland Wessex (1958)
• Westland Whirlwind (1953)
• Westland WS-51 Dragonfly (1948)
• Gyrodyne QH-50 DASH
• Hiller ROE Rotorcycle (1956)
• Piasecki HRP Rescuer (1945)
• Bell UH-1N Twin Huey (1969)
• SH-2 Seasprite (1959)
• SH-2G Super Seasprite (1982)
• CH-53 Sea Stallion (1966)
• SH-60 Seahawk (1979)
• Sikorsky S-61R (1959)
• MH-53E Sea Dragon (1974)
• Kamov Ka 20 (1958)
• Ka-25 "Hormone" (1960)
• Ka-27 "Helix" (1973)
• Ka-31 (1987)
• Ka-35 (2015)
• Ka-40 (1990)
• Mil-Mi 2 (1949)
• Mil Mi-4 (1952)
• ☍ Emergency Fleet Corporation ☍ ☍
• Hog islander program
• Design 1022 ships
• Design 1023 ships
• Design 1024 ships
• Design 1001
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Copyright © 2024 naval encyclopedia

How long did it take to sail across the Atlantic?

Struggling with sailing times? The Caird Library at the National Maritime Museum is here to help

08 Nov 2018

At the Caird Library we receive questions about sailing times between two ports of call very frequently.

Here's just one example: in the 18th century, how long did it take to sail between England and the coast of America?

Although a question like this may seem straightforward, it has some more complicated elements.

The answer depends upon the size of the ship, the size and number of sails the ship had, the time of year it sailed, its hull shape, and whether the ship was in heavy cargo, light cargo or a warship.

The vagaries of the weather (wind, pressure, fog, ice and sea surface temperature) would also have a significant impact, not to mention the direction of sailing: eastbound or westbound. Sailing times may also depend on techniques and methods of navigation, instruments and personal knowledge of ship captains.

Researchers’ first call when tracking down sailing times should be Lloyd's List . A newspaper reporting shipping movements and casualties, maritime news and other commercial information,  Lloyd's List  may help to figure out sailing times. 

The earliest surviving issues date from January 1741, and it was published daily from 1837. However in many cases it only reports when vessels arrive at a port, without mentioning when they departed.

In the 18th century journeys of mail ships from London to New York took approximately two weeks longer than merchant ships from Falmouth to Rhode Island. Yet the distance covered by the merchant ships was actually shorter.

The book  Ocean Passages for the World  (Great Britain: Hydrographic Department, 1895) explains more about sailing times and distances around the world.

The Caird Library holds five continuous editions, the third of which was published in 1973. This edition mentions that typical passage times from New York to the English Channel for a well-found sailing vessel of about 2000 tons was around 25 to 30 days, with ships logging 100-150 miles per day on average.

The distance between the English Channel and the Coast of America is roughly 3000 nautical miles. The standard nautical mile is taken as 6080 feet (1.151 statute miles or 1853m).

Speed at sea is measured in knots, a knot being one nautical mile per hour and unit of speed equal to one nautical mile (which is defined as 1.852 km) per hour, approximately 1.151 mph.

Records as to the rate of sailing are of necessity very indefinite, the speed depending on so many varying circumstances.

Nelson's passage to the West Indies and back was made at an average rate of about 4 knots. He went into action at Trafalgar at less than 3 knots according to Sir Percy Watts, who read his thesis at the Institution of Naval Architects, July 19th 1905.

Another very useful account,  Square Riggers on Schedule (Princeton University Press, 1938), gives the following New York to Liverpool passage times for North Atlantic sailing packets in the period 1818-1832 as follows:

• Fastest crossing - 21 days
• Slowest crossing -29 days

With an average distance of approximately 3,000 miles, this equates to a range of about 100 to 140 miles per day, or an average speed over the ground of about 4 to 6 knots. 

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Shipbuilding Part II the Golden Age 1700 to 1793

Dover Harbour c1590 on completion of Thomas Digges improvments drawn c1836 by Benjamin Worthington . Dover Library

Part I of the Dover shipbuilding story covered the development of shipbuilding from the Bronze Age (2,100BC to 700BC), to the beginning of the 18th century. During that time there had been some highs, notably in the Bronze Age that left the town the legacy of the Bronze Age Boat – the oldest sea going craft in the World! From the late Saxon era, for some three hundred years the Cinque Ports ships, which included those from Dover, ruled the west of Europe seas. There were also the lows of the late Medieval, Tudor and Stuart era’s, particularly during the reign of Charles II (1649-1685). Albeit, towards the end of the 17th century the Dover ship building industry was given a new lease of life and ships built in Dover were recognised as the best.

It should be noted that the details of most of the ships featured in this golden age came from the work of Mark Frost the former Assistant Curator of Dover Museum , for which we give him and the Museum thanks. Papers held by the Local Studies Archives at Maidstone have augmented this research, and much of this information flies in the face of some accounts that can be read on the Internet. This may well cause confusion to readers and we can only leave it to them to draw their own conclusions.

Elizabethan galleon typical of those built in Dover at that time. Frank E Dodman

Anne (1702-1714) became queen of England and of Scotland on the death of her brother-in-law, William III (1688-1702) and was immediately popular. On 22 July 1706 the Treaty of Union united England and Scotland creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain and this came into effect on 1 May 1707. Immediately, maritime trade took on an important role for the economy of the country as a whole. Over the following years the techniques of shipbuilding was perfected and this included those by the individual Dover shipbuilding enterprises. During that century, the galleon gave way to the larger, faster and more slender vessels for the Channel crossing.

Parts of a Topsail Schooner. Frank E Dobson

The diagram opposite comes from the Observers Book of Ships by Frank E Dodman (c1950) and shows the masts and sails of a Topsail Schooner. The rope on these ships was mainly used for rigging, a skill that was usually undertaken by sailmakers and ropebenders. Rigging tended to be divided in two types, Standing rigging , which helped to keep the masts in their permanent positions and  Running rigging that controlled the movement and position of yards and sails. As can be seen from the diagram, the names of the sails come from the names of the masts to which they were attached.

Besides the main and mizzen masts, a four masted barque also had fore and jigger masts, while the fifth mast was sometimes called spanker or pusher mast. Other aspects to be noted of sailing vessels is that a lift takes the weight of a yard or boom, halliards – also written halyard – raise or lower a spar or sail, braces control the fore-and aft movement of the yards and the clew lines lift and lower corners of a square sail. To bend a sail was to attach it to the yard or boom, and to furl it was to secure it temporarily to a spar by short lengths of line called gaskets. Finally, a full-rigged ship was a sailing vessel with yards and square sails on all masts.

Changes to sails started in the early 18th century to meet innovations in ship design. The triangular headsail was introduced and a similar type of sail (staysail) was set on stays between each mast. Typically, the frigates had three head sails and six staysails and a small square spritsail under the bowsprit. The top spritsail that had been developed for the earlier galleons disappeared. The shape of the mizzen lanteen shaped sail gave way to a gaff style sail and side extensions were added to the top and topgallant sails. These changes were introduced on coastal trade, the ships designed to carry commodities from wood to coal but primarily corn. Smaller fishing craft were also being built and made stronger to withstand the heavy seas off the east coast and the Channel.

Southern aspect of Dover harbour c1738 – glass slide by Nathaniel Samuel Buck, Dover Harbour Board.

At the beginning of the 17th century, the Cullen and Kempe were the main shipbuilding families in Dover but by the turn of the 18th century they had been joined by Thomas Dawkes (poss.1641-1705), a relative of Richard Dawkes , who captured the Castle from the Royalists in 1641. An illustration of the growth in Dover’s ship building industry that was beginning to generate wealth was shown in Dawkes Will of 1705. He gave the Mayor and Jurats of Dover £50 to be invested and from the interest, the poor of St Mary’s parish were to receive bread on St Thomas’s day (3 July).

Members of the local wealthy Kennett family ran another ship building enterprise. For a long time the Kennett family had owned land to the south and west of Biggin Street, farmed by James Cannon, Mayor in 1716. By that time Mayor Cannon had bought the land and laid out Cannon Street that still exists today. Another branch of the Kennett family hailed from Postling, near Folkestone, where Basill Kennett was the vicar. His mother, Mary, was the daughter of Thomas White, a wealthy Dover master-shipwright and his brother was White Kennett (1660-1708) the Bishop of Peterborough. It was the sons of Basill Kennett, with the help of Grandfather Thomas that started a Dover shipbuilding operation, one of which was Matthew Kennett (b1670). He also took an active role in Dover politics becoming Mayor in 1724 and different members of the Kennett family were to continue to hold municipal offices in the town until 1857.

Ship building showing various types of ships that were built at the time. Many of which were built at Dover. Welcome Foundation Wikimedia

Thomas Ladd (1) was born in the 1670s and trained as a carpenter, possibly in another town for in 1715 he was granted the Freedom of Dover by order of the Common Council. The original Freemen of Dover earned their living from the sea and owning their own boats. Over the course of time the Dover Freemen amalgamated with those from Sandwich, Hythe, Romney and Hastings to form the Confederation of the Cinque Ports . The Confederation received a Charter from Edward the Confessor (1042-1066), which gave them rights including freedom of movement, freehold of property, free to run a business and take apprentices for seven years, in other words the convention of Dover Freemen was born. By the time of the Norman Conquest (1066), fewer than half the adult males in the town were Freemen and that ratio would not change for over 600 years. Non-freemen were described as foreigners and had few rights. Freedom could only be obtained by birth, marriage, and apprenticeship, purchasing a freehold and by redemption – an expensive gift to the town.

Gaining his Freedom of the town, enabled Thomas Ladd to set up his own business and by 1730 he had opened a shipyard on the Shakespeare Beach alongside all the other shipbuilders of Dover. By that time, up to 300 ton ships were produced in large, sophisticated shipyards all with teams of qualified workers. They either worked directly for the shipbuilders or on their own account selling their expertise or/and products to the shipyards. They included draughtsmen, wood turners, joiners, iron founders, blacksmiths, sailmakers, ropemakers etc ( see Part I of shipbuilding ). Thomas Ladd’s two sons, Thomas (2) (1718- 1776) and Henry (1728-1790) were apprenticed to him, with Thomas gaining entry to the Freedomship in 1739 and Henry in 1749.

Roseau figurehead owned by Richard Mahoney and typical of the figureheads produced in Dover. The Roseau comes from the 371 gross tonnage, wooden barque, Roseau built at Jersey in 1857 by F.C.Clarke for Scrutton and Co of London.

Like the other shipbuilders in Dover of this time, the Ladd family particularly made ships for merchant shipping trade as well as the Channel crossing and for fishing. These only differed to meet the needs of the ships’ usage, further, most could easily be converted into warships as needs necessitated. In design, the ships top deck was sheer or curved towards the bow and reduced in area but the forecastle and poop were higher than the waist while the poop was lower than the forecastle. The Dover ships were decorated but this was not as flamboyant as in the past. Instead the painted designs were simple and elegant and ship decorating developed into one of Dover’s expert crafts. As the century progressed, Dover art studios also included carved ships figureheads in their portfolios.

In 1732 another two shipwrights jointly opened a shipbuilding yard on leased wasteland close to the harbour’s South Pier. They were Thomas and his relative William Pascall, the latter born in 1708. They had both gained their Freedom by apprenticeship and recognising the increasing demand for Dover produced ships, theirs was a shipyard producing similar ships to others bring built on the town’s beaches. Nonetheless, their ships proved popular and to meet the increase in demand, in 1751 Thomas Pascall leased more land on Fishermans Row, in the Pier District. As their shipyard expanded, the two men trained apprentices, most of whom it would appear, were members of the Pascall family.

Towards the mid 18th century the Dover shipbuilders were building an increasing number of larger ships, mainly for the merchant shipping markets such that local merchants set up their own shipyards. One of these was Isaac Minet (c1677- 1745), whose shipbuilding yard was situated at the north-east corner of the harbour and in 1738 he launched the Expedition . This was one of several ships built at that time and probably replaced an older one of the same name but it is particularly remembered as it is one of the rare examples where the name of the ship was recorded. Occasionally Dover shipyards put in bids to build ships for the Royal Navy but they were never successful as the government war ships were built at the Royal dockyards of Portsmouth (founded 1496) Woolwich (founded 1513) and Chatham (founded 1547). If they required further shipping, the Admiralty would commandeer merchant ships and adapt them for their needs.

Wars of the Austrian Succession 1740-1748

Letter of Marque (French) of 1809 Wikimedia

This situation changed in March 1744 when war was declared between England and France during the Wars of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748). From April that year Letters of Marque could be bought and Dover’s shipbuilders, mariners, merchants and ship owners quickly took advantage of them. Letters of Marque were issued by the government and allowed private citizens to seize goods of enemy nations’ ships as a prize for making war on them – called privateering it was a legal form of piracy! To be successful, the ship owners needed fast ships and the Dover shipbuilding industry specialised in building ships for this purpose.

Keels were laid down on the beaches and the ships were built of the best English oak, Quercus Robur that could withstand the fiercest of gales. A typical ship required a quantity of timber equivalent to some 40 acres of woodland and the oak trees were specially grown, with continual conservation of the species in mind. The woodlands were close to Dover and Waldershare and Lyminge forests still survive. The design of these ships was streamlined in order to provide a speed that could outstrip the speed of most other vessels. The Dover ships especially built at this time for privateering included the New Eagle – Captain John Bazely (1699-1763) – father of Admiral John Bazely (1740-1809); the Carlisle – Captain William Owen (b1704) the York – Captain Gravener, Endeavour – Master Thomas Kennett, the Hardwicke – Commander James Samson (b1687), the Cumberland and the Kingston.

The Old Endeavour pub, London Road, named after the privateer ship Endeavour. AS

The New Eagle , Carlisle and the York were paid for out of contributions from a large number of towns folk plus the proceeds earned by Bazely on the second-hand ship, Eagle , bought by Bazely and Peter Fector (1723-1814) for privateering. The trio of ships earned a great deal of respect as well as considerable financial returns from privateering to the town’s folk that had contributed to purchasing the three ships. The Endeavour was also built on Dover beach and fitted out in July 1746. The ship’s master, Thomas Kennet, who was particularly famed for equally sharing out booty taken by privateering between his officers and men. One of the lower Buckland mill cottages on the present London Road was converted into the Old Endeavour pub about 1847 and named after the ship. Later the adjacent row of cottages were named Endeavour Place and the nearby present pub recognised the origin of its name in 1982, when Gaskin’s, the local glassmakers, were commissioned to make a stained glass window featuring the Endeavour . Sadly, this was removed sometime ago and the present owners have no knowledge of where it went.

James Boyton (1726-1803), Dover’s Chief Revenue Officer from 1743 to 1756, described another engagement typical of those that Dover privateers were involved in, writing ‘ (The) privateer engaged 2 French privateers for 6 hours. He was obliged to pull away – he had four men killed and 9 wounded. The vessel is very much shattered … One of the French had 20 guns and the other 16; he had but 14 guns and 100 men. This privateer helped fight a 20 gun ship in the Calais Road … and had all his masts shot away, but was not taken ’ Earlier in 1746, John Latham (1723-1801), a prominent local shipowner held an auction of goods taken from the captured French ships the Dauphin , Periait , Reynaird and Esperance . The list included ‘ 250 Muskets; some Pistols, Cutlasses, Cartouche-Boxes, Bayonets, Buss-Belts, Pole-Axes, Tents; Beef, Pork, Bread, and sundry Water Casks .’ However, the privateers, New Eagle , Carlisle, York and  Endeavour came to the attention of the Privy Counsel who ordered for the ships to stay in port and their sails to be taken ashore. This, it was said, was on the orders of the East India Company and the ships stayed in Dover until May 1746, when they were taken into the King’s service.

On 23 July 1746, under the overall command of Admiral Edward Vernon (1684-1757), the New Eagle , Carlisle , York and the Endeavour played an important part in defeating a threatened invasion by the French based in Dunkirk. The Dover privateers captured several French transport ships that were taking soldiers from Dunkirk to Calais and Boulogne, on board of which was a great quantity of ammunition and provisions. There were also gun carriages and on one ship there was a fine brass mortar and gun as well as a large quantity of chevaux de fris. These were long poles with sharp spikes at one end that were usually placed around horse corals in military camps. The captured French soldiers were taken as prisoners to Dover Castle, where Prisoner of Wars were usually kept at that time. Of note, although the evidence that Dover Castle was used for this purpose during the Wars of the 18th century and including the Napoleonic Wars (1793-1815), some PhD students have gone to great lengths to negate the hard evidence!

On 8 April 1747, the York privateer under Captain Gravenor engaged with the two French privateers for six hours. He was obliged to give up when the York’s  masts were shot away and was generally badly damaged plus four of his men had been killed and nine were wounded. Of the French privateers one had 20 guns and the other 16, while the York only 14 guns and one hundred men. The smaller French ship was a dogger privateer that came out of Calais to assist the first French ship and she initially managed to capture the York . But Gravenor and his men managed to get the York away and eventually they managed to get to the safety of the Margate Roads, off Deal.  For this Gravenor was praised by Admiral Vernon in despatches.

Seven Years’ War 1756-1763

Ropewalk laid by John Goodwin at Archcliffe in 1752 drawn in 1810. Dover Museum

By this time the Royal Navy looked with more than a passing interest at the ships that were being built in Dover and placed orders. Dover’s shipbuilding and associated businesses boomed but completion was hindered by problems in the ropemaking industry. The ropewalk on the main Dover beach was subject to tides and flooding . In 1752 the Harbour Commissioners started to erect a seawall from under the Castle cliffs along the seashore westwards and the ropewalk was in the way. Ropemaker, John Goodwin, on his suggestion was given leave by the Dover Harbour Commissioners to enclose a piece of ground or beach on the town side of the seawall, at his own expense. This new ropewalk was to be free of any encumbrance for 20 years after which Goodwin was to pay a sess or rent as deemed befitting by the Commissioners. The area Goodwin chose was above the sea at Archcliffe above Shakespeare Beach thus closer to the shipbuilding industry. On taking over the ground, Goodwin covered the area with chalk and then with mud out of the Pent and when this had settled he erected the wooden hurdles on which the hemp rope rested while being made by the ropemakers ( see Part I of shipbuilding ). The Ropewalk housing development now occupies the site.

18th Century Brig. Frank E Dodman

Once the problem of a continual supply of excellent quality rope was assured, the shipbuilders were able to fulfil all of the Royal Navy’s requests. Many of these ships were four masted yet their keels were laid down on the beaches. The ships built for local demand tended to be smaller in size but of designs that emphasised speed and of a similar quality as those for the Royal Navy. New ships were expensive but the War, through privateering, had created a number of very wealthy families in Dover and generally most households prospered. Many new businesses opened some offering goods that rivalled those sold in the main retail streets of London, Paris and Bath. The centre was the Snargate Street area of the Pier district, at the west side of the town and close to the harbour. Albeit, following the end of hostilities the Government sold many of their ships at much reduced prices, which flooded the shipping market. This had a direct negative effect on private shipbuilding ports along the southern and eastern coast – with the exception of Dover!

Dover ship owners expanded their fleets with these large cheap ships and many of the mariners clubbed together to buy shares while, in some cases, whole families contributed to buying one of the second-hand Dover built ships. They then used their expertise by participating in smuggling businesses. The crews were mainly made up of mariners drawn from the post-war economic depressed Kent towns. This frequently caused discontent between different groups but the threat of harsh punishment by the heavy handed Dover employers was offset by the size of the purses the men received following a successful operation. Although not so many new ships were built at this time, work adapting ships for smuggling purposes was lucrative and the more ingenious the adaptation the more they could earn. Typically, masts were carefully hollowed to provide hiding places, beautifully carved wooden cabinets would have disguised drawers, while tight fitting partitions giving the impression that they butted against a wall would sometimes hide small rooms. Mansions and ordinary homes were also adapted to hide contraband and the operations thrived.

John Bazeley, Mayor 1762 ordered the demolition of the Medieval Biggin Gate. A plaque placed in 1896 can be seen in New Street. Alan Sencicle

Further, in order to try and combat Dover’s growing smuggling operations and well aware that Dover built ships could easily outrun Revenue Cutters, the government imposed restrictions on the number of ships that were built at Dover. This increased the expertise in adaptation of second-hand ships, not only in hiding places on the ships but also in the speed that they travelled through the water. Called reconditioned ships, one such typical vessel was a privateer taken from the Spanish at the beginning of the Wars of the Austrian Succession. She was mounted with four carriage and twelve swivel guns and became the lead smuggling ship for a consortium made up of John Bazely, Peter Fector and Rooth Colebran (c1720-1781) and was reconditioned and fitted out by Thomas Pascall and his son John, both of whom also had shares. Of note, John Bazely was the Mayor in 1762 and gave permission to remove the Medieval Biggin Gate – a plaque placed in 1896 can still be seen in New Street. The ship worked as a privateer and took many prizes and on one occasion three doggers – single masted fishing boats – loaded with brandy off Calais.

Full Rigged sailing ship of the 18th century of the type built on Dover beaches. Frank E Dodman

By the time of the Seven Years’ War (1756-1763), Dover was the major base for smuggling but with the chance of making more money from privateering, ships were quickly converted on Dover’s beaches. By this time the town’s shipbuilders were illegally turning out new vessels ranging from 20 tons to 150 tons burden that were paid and fitted out for the increasingly prosperous Dover merchants and London investors. Such was the growth that the government introduced more legislation, the Privateering Act of 1759, aimed at stopping the owners of ships that were less than a hundred tons and with a company of fewer than forty men claiming Letters of Marque. This led to an increase in the number of consortiums to purchase larger and faster Dover built ships and these were so impressive that the Royal Navy increasingly procured them!

Following the Seven Years’ War another, and possibly the most famous of the Dover shipbuilding families, started a business on Dover beach. This was the King shipyard founded by Thomas King (1739-1815), the son of William King, who by virtue of his marriage to Ann West, daughter of Freeman and mariner, William West, had gained his Freemanship. Thus Thomas claimed his Freedom by birth and after serving a shipbuilding apprenticeship in Dover, courted Ann Wellard (1735-1796) whom he married in 1764. Ann’s wealth provided the capital for the business and they specialised in the production of cross-Channel packet ships and coastal smacks. The firm prospered and the couple had five sons and two daughters. One of the daughters married into a shipbuilding associated family and the sons served as apprentices in the family shipyard. The two eldest sons, Thomas Jones King (1765-1818) and John King (born 1769) joined their father and the King shipyard expanded. Eventually, it covered the area from the remains of the present day Prince of Wales Pier westwards beyond the Admiralty Pier and lorry parks that now litter Dover’s Shakespeare Beach seafront, to where the Mulberry Tree Inn once stood.

Smuggling Lugger being chased by a Royal Navy Brig off Dover. Wikimedi

On 25 Sep 1787 Ann West King (1767 -1818), the other of Thomas’s two daughters married William Knocker (1761-1847), the founding father of one of Dover’s major legal families. He was a key member of his family smuggling business that operated around Seasalter, seven miles east of Faversham and also at Heron – probably modern day Herne, near Reculver, then on the north Kent coast. By this time a number of wealthy Dover merchants and their families had smuggling domains around East Kent including the Bazely, Colebran, Latham, Rice, Sampson and Hammond families. However, the main smuggling family was the Fector’s whose operations were refined by John Minet Fector (1754-1821) following the American War of Independence (1775-1783). Of interest, the centre of their operation in Dover was from Pier House on Custom House Quay next door to the Custom House!

American War of Independence (1776-1783)

In an attempt to try and combat smuggling, the government invested in more Revenue Cutters, many of which were built on Dover’s beaches, sometimes next to specially designed smuggling ships! The government also increased the number of Riding Officers but it was the American War of Independence that was more successful in reducing the illicit trade. For this War, the Letters of Marque were not restricted as they had been in the Seven Years War and the Revenue Cutters were redeployed for military purposes. Shipowners used the opportunity to play a robust part in privateering for as records show, the, Dutton , an East Indiaman running out of Dover made £30,000 in profits from only three privateering voyages during this time! In February 1796, the Dutton was at Plymouth when a storm blew up that put the ship aground in Plymouth Sound. At the time, she was commissioned to take transport troops to the West Indies. Although the officers and most of the crew had managed to get ashore, the ship was breaking up with some 500 people, including a skeleton crew and women and children aboard. Famously, Dover born, Admiral Edward Pellew , 1st Viscount Exmouth (1757-1833) organised two rowing boats to carry hawsers – heavy ropes for towing and mooring. A large and powerful man, he swam to the stricken vessel, still dressed in full uniform including sword and instructed the crew to haul the ropes on board and once secured the passengers and crew was winched to safety.

Armed Cutter c1820. National Maritime Museum. Wikimedia

One of the first Dover ships ordered by the Admiralty following the outbreak of the War was from the Ladd family of shipbuilders. This was the Alert a 183ton, 14gun Cutter designed by Sir John Williams, Surveyor for the Royal Navy 1765-1784 and was one of the original pair of his design. The other was the Rattlesnake built by Farley of Folkestone. Cutters are small to medium size ships designed for speed rather than for capacity. They tend to be single masted, which is set further back than on a sloop and with fore and aft rigging. They have two or more headsails and often a bowsprit. Both the ships were lost, the Alert in 1778 and the Rattlesnake in 1781.

From the 1770s Henry Ladd was in sole charge of the family shipyard and he had three sons who served as apprenticed shipwrights with the family firm. They were Henry junior (1755-1801) – Freeman in 1777, Luke (b1758) – Freeman in 1778 and Thomas (3) (1765-1806) – Freeman in 1786. Henry senior died in 1790 and the business passed to Henry and Luke. The Ladds’ were keen to pass on their skills and took on a large number of apprentice shipwrights. Mark Frost tells us that these included: Stephen Peake (b circa 1763) apprenticed to Henry Ladd made Freeman in 1783 William Barritt (b circa 1768) apprenticed to Luke Ladd made Freeman in 1788 Joseph Pritchard (b circa 1769) apprenticed to Henry Ladd senior made Freeman in 1789. John Bentley (b circa 1780) apprenticed to Henry Ladd made Freeman in 1790 Matthew Norris (b circa 1780) apprenticed to Henry and Luke Ladd made Freeman in 1790.

Frigate c1780. Frank Dobson

The Ladd shipyard was commissioned to build more Royal Navy ships including those designed by Sir John Williams. In 1771, the 28-gun Enterprise Class were the first frigates he designed but their sailing qualities did not match the equivalents designed by Sir Thomas Slade (1704-1771). Nevertheless, some 27 vessels were built to this design, more than to any other Sixth Rate design. These included five ships ordered in 1770 and 1771 and all brought into commission from the Ladd shipyard in 1775 and 1776. They were of 593tons with a crew of 200men and armament consisting of 24x9pounders and 4x3pounders. The Admiralty ordered a further 15ships of the same design, some from both Dover and Sandgate shipyards in 1880, including Ladds’.

Sir John Williams designed the Sprightly Class cutters – one-mast ships with a mainsail, two headsails and a bowsprit, a forerunner of modern day yachts. The prototype was the 150ton Sprightly I , built by the King shipyard in August 1777. She carried a crew of 60 men and had 10x3pounders and 12×1/2pounder swivels and shortly after 12 carronades x12pounders replaced the 3pounders. She was commissioned under Lieutenant William Hills but was lost, presumed foundered with all hands, in a storm off Guernsey on 23 December 1777.

Plan of the Upper deck of the Sprightly class of ships 1778. Wikimedia

The Navy replaced her the following year with Sprightly II , also built by the King shipyard. Costing £1,158 15shillings 5 pence and launched in August 1778, she was 150tons and was commissioned in September 1779 under Lieutenant Gabriel Bray for the Downs but paid off in 1780. Then, recommissioned in September that year and took part in the Battle of Dogger Bank on 5 August 1781 under Lieutenant Peter Rivett but was paid off again in May 1783. Recommissioned that month for Mounts Bay, west Cornwall but paid off in 1785. Recommissioned May 1786 for five years until she was again paid off. In 1792 under Lieutenant Richard Hawe and in March 1794 under Lieutenant Digby Dent and six months later under Lieutenant Robert Jump (-1801). She sailed for Jamaica in January 1799 but in February 1801 Sprightly II was captured by the 74 gun Le Dix Aout of Gateaume ’s squadron in the Mediterranean and scuttled.

Another cutter ordered by the Royal Navy was the Expedition in February 1778 from the Ladd shipyard. Launched in August 1778, she cost £1,180 to build plus £1,348 fitting out and the ship’s bottom was coppered. The Royal Navy had introduced coppering of wooden ships’ bottoms as rivers were increasingly becoming infested with Gribble and Teredo worms. A mollusc that enters submerged timbers when it is very small and grows rapidly to about 4 to 6 inches in length and less than one-quarter inch in diameter. They riddle the interior of the wood until, without noticeable damage on the outside, an entire structure may suddenly collapse. All ships commissioned by the Royal Navy had to have 1milimetre or 0.04 inches thick copper sheathing covering the bottoms that gave the hulls a clean, wet surface that protected against the worms and, as a bonus, stopped the ships being fouled by weed.

Commissioned in September 1778 for the Downs, the Expedition was paid off in 1783 but refitted May 1784 and paid off the following year. Recommissioned March 1786 was refitted in 1789-1790 as a Channel packet. With the outbreak of the Napoleonic Wars, she was recommissioned May 1792 under the command of Lieutenant Grosvenor Winkworth for service in the North Sea. Followed in July 1793, under Lieutenant Bayntun Prideaux, for the Channel, then April 1796 Lieutenant George Raper (1769-1796). In 1802 she was under the command of Lieutenant Charles Boyes (died 1804) and decommissioned in conjunction with the signing of the Amiens Peace Treaty of that year (25 March 1802).

English Brig with captured American ships. F Holman 1778. Wikimedia

In August 1778 the King shipyard built and launched the 205ton brig Alert that was bought by the Royal Navy before completion. A brig was a two masted vessel with square sails on each mast for power, and fore-and-aft staysails for manoeuvrability along with jibs and spanker – similar to colliers of that time. She was launched in August and crewed by 80 men. The Alert carried 14x4pdrs, 12×1/2pdrs swivel guns and the cost including fitting and coppering cost £1,868 19shillings 10pence. Following the commissioning, the Alert was sailed under Commander James Vashon. That year she was seized by the American ‘ rebel states ’ and was used to set fire to two other British vessels carrying hay. Sir James Wallace (1731-1803) was the Captain of the 50-gun ship Experiment and he came to the rescue saving the Alert from being burnt too.

The Alert was in the Leeward Islands in February 1780 and at the Battle of Dogger Bank in August 1781. She was at the Battle of the Saintes 9-12 April 1782 off Dominica in the West Indies, following which she was paid off. The Battle of the Saintes, occurred due to the belief by the French that the American War of Independence could be ended successfully with the capture of Jamaica from the British. The British West Indies Fleet was under Admiral Sir George Brydges Rodney (1718-1792) and the French fleet, sailed from Fort Royal, Martinique under the Comte François Joseph Paul de Grasse (1722-1788). They first engaged off Dominica on 9 April, and then off the group of islets to the north called the Saints (Les Saintes) on the 12th. Rodney’s victory proved a counterbalance to the loss of the British colonies in America and allowed Britain to secure superiority over the French in the Caribbean in the 1783 Treaty of Versailles.

At Chatham, the Alert was then fitted out for the Channel packet service, which cost £617 10shillings 8d but in October 1783 was again laid up. Again fitted out at Chatham, this time for foreign service between April – July 1787, costing £625 1shillings 6pence. She was recommissioned in June 1787 under the command of Commodore George Burden and sailed for Jamaica. In 1791 she was again paid off and sold at Deptford for £235 in October 1792. The Alert was the only brig built for the Royal Navy to be disposed of prior to 1793.

Shipbuilding at East Cliff 1792. Dover Museum

Although the Dover shipyards were building vessels for the Royal Navy, they were also providing local shipowners and others with exceptionally fast ships that were being used as privateers and for smuggling. The shipbuilding yards, by this time, were along the beaches from Shakespeare Cliff to East Cliff and the number of privateers operating out of Dover during the War was in excess of 50. Most were built at Dover and shipbuilders and ancillary shipbuilding tradesmen operated many. For instance, Henry Ladd built and owned the 200ton British Hero with 16 carriage guns and captained by local John Wellard (1743-1817). He also built and owned, with others, the 45ton Charlotte and the 100ton cutter Job with Samuel Kempe and captained by Henry Pascall. She was put up for sale in in 1779 and described as ‘ a prime sailor, exceedingly well founded .’

The Capture of El Gamo spanish treasure ship by the Dover built 3 masted brig, Speedy.

The King family built and owned the 129ton privateer Drake , and the three masted, 50 ton Surprize with 64x2lb carriage guns, 6swivels, 20 crew. Along with James Gravener, the King’s owned the 60ton Martha, a privateer with 8 swivel guns, 20crew and captained by Robert Steriker (1753-1830). In 1782 she took the Adventurer , a French privateer of Dunkirk and was sold in a sale at the King’s Head Tavern, Clarence Place next to the harbour. The 200ton Resolution was built by the King shipyard and owned by them along with John Osborne who was also her Captain. She was armed with 12x6lb carriage guns, 20 swivel guns and carried a crew of 60. She traded between Dover and Guernsey smuggling wines to London. Ropemaker John Goodwin owned the 260ton Bridgetown that carried 4 swivel guns and had a crew of 18. The 208ton Speedy , a three-masted brig designed by Sir John Williams, was built by a Dover shipbuilder carrying 14guns was launched in June 1781. She had a glittering career as a privateer as well as a Royal navy ship. While in that capacity and under the command of Thomas Cochrane (1775-1860), 10th Earl of Dundonald, Speedy was famous in capturing El Gamo, a Spanish treasure ship.

Front Cover of the Dover Paving Commission Act 1777. Dover Library

Smuggling was increasingly being organised by Dover businessmen with the government retaliating by increasing the number of Riding Officers. In 1778 the Dover’s Paving Commission was set up by Act of Parliament, its principal function was for town management including street lighting. Mayor, Matthew Kennett (1739-1818), of a ship owning family, took a leading part in framing the Act and the resulting document pleased the government. The Commission was made up of sixty-four named persons, including Matthew Kennett, and Jurats Christopher Gunman  (1714-1781), James Hammond, John Latham, John Coleman, Thomas Bateman Lane (1746-1821), James Gunman (1747-1824) and Phineas Stringer (1730-1801). Nonetheless, Dover’s street lighting continued to be kept deliberately poor for as Charles Dickens (1812-1870), noted in his opening chapter of ‘ The Tale of Two Cities ,’ ‘ … A little fishing was done in the port and a quantity of strolling about by night, and looking seaward, particularly at those times when the tide made and was near flood. Small tradesmen who did no business whatever, sometimes unaccountably realised large fortunes and it were remarkable that nobody in the neighbourhood could endure a lamplighter! ’

The War raged on and the Royal Navy continued to be interested in purchasing Dover built ships. The 206 ton brig Lively , built by the King shipyard, was launched in June 1779. The cost, including fitting out and coppering, was £1,821 11shillings 9pence. The Royal Navy purchased her along with the 181ton Cockatrice , also built by the King shipyard and launched the following year. The 340ton Merlin was purchased from the King shipyard while still being built in 1780. A sloop, she was crewed by 125men and initially had 18x6pounder guns. A sloop was a one-masted vessel with a mainsail, one headsail and no bowsprit. The Royal Navy also purchased the 317ton Bulldog , built by another Dover shipbuilder while William Crow, William Pepper and Captain John Blake, independently, bought the 124ton Nile , which carried 14x6lb carriage guns. In 1799 she was described in a newspaper article as a beautiful new lugger fitted out in Dover and pierced for 18guns. The Nile had a successful career as a privateer as was the Swift I . She had 6 swivel guns and 30crew and was owned and captained by John Osborne in a consortium with London merchants William Richards and Joseph Graves. Osborne was also part of the King consortium that ran the Resolution .

In 1780 William Hedgecock (b1765), son of victualler Michael Hedgecock (d1769), joined the Pascall yards as an apprentice and some seventeen years later formed a partnership with John Pascall trading as Pascall and Hedgecock. The continual demand for Dover ships attracted even more shipbuilders to set up their own businesses on Dover beaches, including John Freeman (1759-1831). He was born in Folkestone and apprenticed to a Dover shipwright about 1776 becoming a Freeman in 1781. Soon after Freeman opened a shipyard at Harts Row off Beach Street, close to Archcliff Fort. He married Elizabeth Vincer (b1760), of a shipbuilding family, and his two eldest sons, John (1787-1843) and Thomas Vincer Freeman (b 1789), were apprenticed to the Freeman shipyard as shipwrights. The Royal Navy commissioned ships from the Freeman shipyard along with the other Dover shipyards.

Régulus a 74-gun French ship under attack by British fireships 11 August 1809. Wikipaedia

From the Ladd shipyard, the Royal Navy commissioned a prototype fireship/sloop, Tisiphone , the first of nine ships in the Tisiphone class, all of which were built on Dover beaches. The Tisiphone was launched in 1781 and the others were the 423ton Alecto launched 1781 and the 424ton Incendiary launched 1782, both built by Thomas King and each crewed by 55men. There was also the Comet (1783), Conflagration (1783), Megaera (1783), Pluto (1782), Spitfire (1782) and the Vulcan (1783). The design of these fireships was based on a French privateer fireship captured in 1745 and similar in many ways to a sloop of war. Indeed, fireships were often employed as sloops of war until they were used for the purpose they were built. The design of fireships differed from other ships in that they had a flush upper deck with the bulwarks carried forward along the waist and was pierced for gunports. When used as fireships they were filled with combustibles, set on fire then positioned to drift into an enemy fleet at anchor. Until they reached the chosen destination they were steered by a skeleton crew who escaped in the ship’s boat following impact with the enemy ship. An explosion ship or hellburner was a variation on the fireship, intended to cause damage by blowing up in proximity to enemy ships. As warships of this time were built of wood, caulked with tar and greased rope as well as carrying gunpowder, they were vulnerable to fire and therefore fireships were a major threat. Not only did fireships destroy enemy ships, they created panic and if the enemy were on the move, when a fireship was sent among them, it forced them to break formation.

Design plan of the Dover built fireships by the King and Ladd yard between 1779 & 1784

In Greek mythology Tisiphone was the Avenger of Murder – one of the three Furies – and the Tisiphone fireship was ordered in June 1779 and launched in May 1781 at a cost £9,195 3s 9d to build, including fitting and coppering. The Tisiphone was laid up in March 1785 and underwent a small repair at Woolwich. In May 1790 she was recommissioned under Commodore, later Admiral, Charles Tyler (1760-1835) and in 1793, was under the command of Commander Thomas Byam Martin (1773-1854) later Admiral of the Fleet and took the 12-gun privateer L’Outrade March that year. Although built to be used as a fireship, the Tisiphone , along with the other Dover built fireships, had all the attributes of a Dover built ship, including built of the finest locally grown English oak, Quercus Robur . She was therefore deployed as part of the battle fleet while awaiting her destruction as a fireship. This virtue of the Dover built ships was credited with reducing the British fleet from the enormous size required in the American War of Independence, to a streamlined service geared toward protecting merchant trade and the British Empire during the Napoleonic Wars!

Design of the middle and lower decks of the Incendiary & Tisiphone class fireships in general 1778

The Alecto was the first of the Tisiphone class fireship the King shipyard built for the Royal Navy costing £9,700.15shillings 1pence including fitting & coppering. After being paid up and laid up following the American War of Independence, the Alecto was recommissioned in 1798 and she also served as guardship at Lymington prior to he sale in 1802. Another of the Tisiphone class fireships built by the King shipyard was the Incendiary , launched 12 August 1782 costing £9,570.14.5d including fitting & coppering. Like both the Tisiphone and the Alecto she was not used for the job for which she was built and for the same reasons – she was of a superior craftmanship and built of Quercus Robur oak, which was ideal for shipbuilding as it did not burn easily! Instead the Incendiary was recommissioned in February 1793 and refitted at Sheerness. Eventually she was used as a fireship, along with the Majestic and Daedalus when they destroyed the storeship Suffren off Ushant, Brittany on 8 January 1797. With Suffren well alight and the other fireships ablaze the crewless Incendiary sailed out of the mayhem. A crew was despatched to deal with the smouldering ship but found that she had only suffered superficial damage! At a cost of £2,294, the Incendiary was refitted at Portsmouth but after a successful career particularly against French privateers, the 80-gun L’Indivisible of Count Honoré Ganteaume (1755-1818) captured her on 29 January 1801. This was in the Gulf of Cadiz, the southernmost point of mainland Portugal and recognising she was a fireship, her captors set her alight. The Incendiary refused to burn and her dignity throughout the ordeal was so awe-inspiring that it was suggested that she should be offered as a prize for diplomatic purposes. For whatever reason, a decision was made to scuttle her and the Incendiary gracefully sank to the bottom of the sea.

For quite sometime, some of Dover’s shipping companies had bought licences from the Post Office to operate the cross-Channel Packet industry. However, due to the danger from French privateers during the American War of Independence, they ceased this activity, sold their packet ships and invested in smaller, faster sloops, with relatively shallow draughts. These vessels enabled them to use the smaller Continental harbours for smuggling purposes. When peace returned, illegally importing contraband from France enabled them to maintain their lifestyles that they had acquired throughout the lucrative years of the American War. Although there was an increase in the number of Revenue men and cutters, smuggling became one of Dover’s major and most lucrative industries. Respectability was maintained with the reintroduction of the packet service, for which ships built in Dover were used. Four packet ships made the crossing every Wednesday and Saturday with mails for Calais and Ostend. As the Turnpiked Road to Folkestone from Dover, over the cliffs, was increasingly ‘ dangerous from the falling cliffs ,’ the present Folkestone Road through the Farthingloe Valley was built to replace this by the Turnpike Trust . The new road opened in 1783 and remained a turnpike until 1887. The abandoned old road to Folkestone, enabled more smuggling to take place along the cliffs in the area.

Dover Harbour c1800.

At this time, until the outbreak of the Napoleonic Wars, the ships built in Dover for the packet, passage and smuggling industries included the 48ton Ant , 78ton Countess of Elgin , 56ton Dart , Defence , 49ton Dover , 66ton Duchess of Cumberland , Flora , Hardwick , Industry , Lady Casterleagh , Lady Jane James , Lark , Lord Duncan , 160ton cutter Nymph , Pitt , Poll , Prince Leopold , Prince of Wales , Prince William Henry , 71 ton Princess Augusta , the 96ton schooner Princess Charlotte , Sybil , Susanah  and the 50ton Venus . As the old Folkestone Road was no longer the main road out of Dover, the shores along cliffs on that stretch of coast became ideal for landing contraband increasing the smuggling industry profits. The industry became so flagrant that there was a public outcry and investigations were undertaken. It was found that in Dover the game of eluding the revenue laws were played to perfection and the Admiralty Records show, that Customs Officers more than once complained of the obstruction they met from the towns folk. It was known that tea was the main item being smuggled at Dover at this time. By the middle of the eighteenth century 4million pounds of tea was consumed in the country but duty had only been paid on 800,000 pounds! It was believed that Dover packets were the main carriers of the contraband as the frigates were the town’s largest ships and therefore were more likely to be able to keep the tea dry. The town’s two largest shipowners, the respectable Fectors and Lathams owned the packets.

Dover custom house on Custom House quay built in 1666 and demolished March 1821 and replaced by a new Custom House built by John Minet Fector bank that year. Dover Museum

When the Revenue men wanted to go on board these packets, the ships had to tie up on Custom House Quay – approximately on the Snargate Street side of the present Granville Dock . A member of the shipowning family met the Revenue men and the senior officers were taken on board to participate in refreshments while the junior officers stayed on the quayside and kept watch. Throughout the inspection the crew were respectful and doing as requested by the Revenue officers. The inspections were undertaken without interference but nothing was ever found, nor did those on the quayside see anything amiss. Later that day, after the ship left Dover, the ship’s boats would be lowered below Hougham cliffs or at St Margaret’s Bay and smuggled caskets of tea would be taken ashore. Dover shipbuilders and associated trade had became ingenious in adapting the ships, its furniture etc. ensuring that tea was carried in the safest and dry conditions as possible!

A representation of the English and Dutch fleets five minutes before action commenced in the Battle of Camperdown on 11 October 1797. The English fleet under the command of Admiral Adam Duncan (1731-1804) captured nine ships of the Line, two ships and took three Admirals. The battle is considered one of the most significant in British naval history. R is the Dover built frigate Circe carrying 28guns. Wikimedia

Albeit, following the end of the War of American Independence, those shipbuilders that had earned a good living from producing ships for the Royal Navy, were hit particularly hard as the Admiralty sold them off cheap and they ceased buying new vessels. Henry Ladd was declared bankrupt when proceedings were taken against him on 11 April 1785 by fellow shipbuilder, James Gravener. At the time, the Ladd yard was just finishing building Circe , an Enterprise Class frigate, which the Royal Navy had ordered in March 1782 but with the end of the war, had rescinded on the payment. This had cost the Ladd shipbuilding yard £6,117 including fitting out. The ship was laid up in the shipyard.

The French Revolution (1789-1799) started on 11 July 1789 and fearing what may happen to Britain, the government started to make preparations. The Admiralty increased its ship building policy and in September 1790, the Royal Navy recommissioned the Circe . They paid the money they owed for the ship and thus saved the Ladd shipyard. During the Napoleonic Wars the Circe was involved in the capture of the 14-gun L’Espiegle , off Ushant November 1793; took part in the Battle of Camperdown off the North Holland coast, 11 October 1797; the attack on Ostend on 18 May 1798. She also took the 12-gun Lijnx and 8-gun schooner Perseus at the mouth of the River Ems, northwestern Germany on 11 October 1799 but was wrecked on the Lemon and Ower Bank off Norfolk on 17 November 1803. In December 1797 the Circe was under the command of Captain Robert Winthrop (1764-1832) later Admiral of the Blue, who died at his residence in Dover on 10 May 1832.

King George I 70ton sloop Cross-Channel Sailing Packet owned by the Fector family by Gordon Ellis. A model can be seen in the Museum. LS

There was also the King George II , built by the King shipyard for the Fector banking family , and whose master initially was Matthew King (1759-1832) and later George Bagster. The King George II was a 128-ton cutter with a hull designed to offer the minimum resistance in the water. This made her fast but not as fast as the Fector flagship, ex-Royal Navy 70ton sloop, King George I , also built by the King shipyard and remained the fastest ship on the cross Channel packet run. This was a feat that was not to be surpassed until the steam packets broke her record in the 1820s. A model of the King George I can be seen at Dover Museum but it was King George II packet ship, that was believed by the customs and others to be particularly heavily involved in smuggling. At this time, the average sum of duties collected by customs in Dover from 1788 to 1793 was only £14,269 per year and only amounted to a third of the salaries, wages and other outlays of the custom post in the town. On this subject Edward Hastard (1760-1855), in 1797, wrote that ‘so numerous are the contraband traders here whose success is chiefly owing to the blackness of the night; and at this time there is not a single light in the night throughout the whole town of Dover. ’

A cutter, frigate and an Indiaman with other ships all of which are typical of the ships produced by the King shipyard. Wikimedia

By 1790 William King of the King shipbuilding business, was active in local politics. His first taste came in 1784, when he was appointed by Dover’s councillors as one the Commissioners to the Court of Requests, even though he was not a member of the Common Council. The Court of Requests dealt with small debts up to £5 owed to tradesmen and the Commissioners had to have real property of £30 to £500 in personnel wealth. Shortly after King was elected a councillor and in 1790 he was elevated to that of a Jurat – the inner sanctum of the Corporation. It also bestowed upon him the eligibility to being elected a Mayor, as he was in September 1798. By that time King was heavily involved in producing ships for the Royal Navy and in 1800 was actively involved in the erection of New Bridge, designed to help Dover to become a tourist resort. However, in 1807, it was taken as granted that he would be elected Mayor again but the proposal was fiercely contested by Thomas Mantell (1751–1831) the leader of the anti-smuggling lobby. Although King won, this was only by a small majority and not only did he not stand again, but the King shipyard in Dover closed and the firm moved to Upton (Upnor), on the Medway.

Another of Dover shipbuilding families was the influential Worthingtons. Their residences were at Maxton, nowadays a suburb of Dover at the west end of the Folkestone Road in Dover. The centre of their holdings was the Manor House at Maxton and about 1800, one of the members, had warehouses along Gardiner’s Lane, the only thoroughfare out of Dover going westwards. For this reason, the road was changed to Worthington Lane – now Worthington Street. One of the Royal Navy commanders during the Napoleonic Wars was Lieutenant Benjamin Worthington, whose home was the Maxton Manor House and following the end of the Napoleonic Wars he occupied his time projecting schemes for the improvement of Dover Harbour. Another member of the family, Benjamin Worthington, for many years kept the Ship Hotel on Custom House Quay and ran the Dover and London mail coaches.

As the Napoleonic Wars were approaching, the Dover shipbuilders and affiliated occupations had so perfected their techniques that Dover built ships were refereed to as the ‘ Pride of Europe ’. At the time the main shipbuilders listed were: Thomas Allen, Cowley & Austin, T Finch, Gilbee and Farley, Benjamin Glandfield, James Gravener, Kemp and Johnson, Matthew Kennett, Thomas King, Luke Ladd, James Large, Pascall and Hedgecock. John Scott, Robert Taylor, S T Walker and Elias Worthington. The ropemakers were Peter Becker (1764-1842) & Richard Jell (1762-1847), Richard Witherden (d1800) and Stephen Witherden (1757-1826). Thomas Ismay (1747-1827) was a ship-chandler and also an ironmonger, blacksmith and brazier. Becker & Jell were sailmakers as well as shipbuilders, as was Edward Ladd, Ratcliff & Co and Nicholas Ladd Steriker (1767-1830). During the Napoleonic Wars a tax was introduced on sails and all sail cloth was stamped with its place of origin on each sheet when the tax had been paid. It was a serious offence to use sails, which had not been stamped.

On 1 February 1793, France declared war on Britain and the Napoleonic Wars (1793-1815) began.

Dover Harbour 1793 by R Dodd. LS

The Dover Shipbuilders story Part 3 covers the Napoleonic Wars 1793 – 1815

Presented: 04 May 2018

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18th Century Longboat

18th Century Longboat – Model Shipways

January 7, 2018

UPDATE: This build was put on hold in April 2018.  After finishing the hull planking, I simply wasn’t happy with the results and decided to box the build and move on to the Fair American build.  

With the Bluenose complete, it is time to start another build.  This will be my third model ship.  My last build really helped to expand my skill set, and I’m eager to try my hand at things like square rigs and cannons.  However, coming off a nearly 2-year build, I’m hesitant to jump immediately into another big long build.

So, I’ve chosen to build the Model Shipways 18th Century Longboat.

I’m drawn to this kit because it is a relatively short build, but it requires extra attention be paid to the wood working.  I think this is a great opportunity for me to sharpen my skills on cutting, sanding, and making good joints.

The Longboat

This model will be of a typical 18th century  longboat .  Longboats were carried by larger sailing ships and used to shuttle people or supplies between the ship and shore.  This model is based on a model found in the National Maritime Museum of a typical longboat from 1750 to 1760.

About the Kit

The kit was designed by Chuck Passaro.  He wrote the practicum that I followed for my first build .  He runs Syren Ship Model Company , where I’ve purchased all my rigging line and blocks.  He’s also one of the moderators of the Model Ship World Forum .  Basically, he’s one of the rock stars of the model ship world.

The instructions for this kit are basically a practicum.  They are very thorough and cover every step.

• 1:48 scale, 10″ long, 11.75″ tall.
• 40+ pages of instructions.
• 2 full size sheets of plans.
• Plank-on-frame construction.
• All required wood is provided.
• Plans and instructions by Chuck Passaro
• Kit developed in 2011.

Getting Started

In preparation for this build, I’ve done some work to get organized:

• The 2 sheets of plans were scanned into the computer.
• I created additional diagrams for each of the rigging lines, and created my own plan sheet for each line.
• I made my build book , including the instructions, plans and rigging diagrams.
• I went through the instructions line-by-line and noted every piece, part, and step that needs to be done.  I’ve made a spreadsheet out of this to help me track my work.

Today I spread the parts out on the bench and prepared to dive in.  As always, this starts with an inventory .  Each part was checked against the parts list and labled.

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Published on May 9th, 2023 | by Editor

When the 1700s come to the rescue

Published on May 9th, 2023 by Editor -->

At 47-meters, the Götheborg of Sweden is the largest ocean-going wooden sailing ship in the world. Launched in 2005, it was based on an 18th-century merchant ship and built using the tools, methods, and materials of that time.

While the ship is typically utilized for tours or European expeditions, it recently was also the closest vessel to a sailboat that had made a distress call after losing its rudder. Here’s the report from the sailors that made the call:

On April 25th at 01:00, we left Cherbourg and set sail for Camaret (the tip of Brittany).

We are two experienced sailors on board (Simon and me) with the objective of bringing the boat to Southern Brittany.

At 15:30, we were at sea, more than 50 nautical miles from the coast, when our rudder broke. After sending a PAN-PAN call on the VHF radio, the three-masted sailboat Götheborg quickly responded to our call, offering to tow us to Paimpol (France).

We repeatedly emphasized that we were aboard a small 8-meter sailboat, but the response was the same each time: “We are a 50-meter three-masted sailboat, and we offer our assistance in towing you to Paimpol.” We were perplexed by the size difference between our two boats, as we feared being towed by a boat that was too large and at too fast a speed that could damage our boat.

The arrival of the Götheborg on the scene was rapid and surprising, as we did not expect to see a merchant ship from the East India Company of the XVIII century. This moment was very strange, and we wondered if we were dreaming. Where were we? What time period was it?

The Götheborg approached very close to us to throw the line and pass a large rope. The mooring went well, and our destinies were linked for very long hours, during which we shared the same radio frequency to communicate with each other.

The crew of the Götheborg showed great professionalism and kindness towards us. They adapted their speed to the size of our boat and the weather conditions. We felt accompanied by very professional sailors. Every hour, the officer on duty of the Götheborg called us to ensure everything was going well.

The next day, as we approached the French coast, we radioed for another boat to help us enter the port, but no one responded positively. Around noon, the Götheborg approached us as closely as possible and stayed by our side until the arrival of a French rescue boat to ensure that everything would go well for us before letting us go.

This adventure, very real, was an incredible experience for us. We were extremely lucky to cross paths with the Götheborg by chance and especially to meet such a caring crew.

Dear commander and crew of the Götheborg, your kindness, and generosity have shown that your ship is much more than just a boat. It embodies the noblest values of the sea, and we are honored to have had the chance to cross your path and benefit from your help.

We thank you again for everything you have done for us.

David Moeneclaey (skipper of the sailboat Corto)

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Hms surprise – 18th century british frigate.

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HMS Surprise Model Ship Kit – Mamoli (MV58)

The HMS SURPRISE 18th Century British Frigate Model Ship Kit is manufactured by Mamoli Model Ship Kits & Mamoli Model Boat Kits. Mamoli focus on historical accuracy and fidelity of scale. Mamoli wooden model ship kits offer a large variety of subject matter to please almost everyone. The materials used in their wooden model ship kits are always first class and the plans are highly detailed.

History of the HMS Surprise

Originally a French corvette named L’Unite and armed with 24 nine pound long guns, she was designed by M. Forfait and was built at Le Havre. Captured in 1796 by HMS Inconstant, L’Unite was rechristened HMS Surprise and converted by the British into a 28-gun sixth-rate, carrying 24 32-pound carronades on her main deck, eight more of the same on her quarter deck and forecastle, as well as 4 six-pound long guns as chasers.

The HMS SURPRISE – 18th Century British Frigate gained fame for the cutting-out expedition in 1799 of HMS Hermione Hermione’s crew had mutinied, and had sailed her into Spanish possession in Puerto Cabello. Captain Edward Hamilton of the Surprise led a boarding party to retake the Hermione from the mutineers and, after a sharp action, sailed her out of danger under Spanish gunfire back into British control. She was sold out of the Service in 1802.

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